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The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 77

90. What causes pain in mast cell disease?

  • Most mast cell patients experience some kind of pain. Because mast cells are involved in pain sensation and inflammation, mast cell patients are at risk of pain by different mechanisms throughout their body.
  • Mast cells are involved in nerve pain. Mast cells often live very close to nerves, sometimes so close they are touching. When nerve cells feel pain, they release mediators to activate mast cells. The mast cells then activate other nearby nerve cells. The result of this is that the brain gets a pain signal from lots of nerves, not just the nerves that initially felt the pain, so the pain you feel is worse.
  • Mast cells participate in inflammation. One of the big things they do is send signals to other immune cells to come to the site of inflammation. These cells release mediators that can cause pain or make it worse. Nerve cells nearby will send a stronger pain signal again in response to these immune cells causing inflammation.
  • Mast cells are involved in hyperalgesia, when your nerves are very sensitive and send a stronger than normal pain response to things that shouldn’t normally be very painful. For this reason, many mast cell patients have a heightened pain response, even to things that aren’t normally very painful.
  • Mast cells are associated with a number of chronic pain conditions.
  • Visceral pain is when you feel pain in your internal organs, like your GI tract or your liver. Visceral pain is often not localized so it can be hard to tell what is actually hurting. Mast cell patients often report visceral pain.
  • Pelvic pain is linked to mast cell activation and can cause serious symptoms, including painful sex. Pelvic floor dysfunction is sometimes seen in mast cell patients. Interstitial cystitis, chronic inflammation of the bladder, is also driven by mast cells, although it’s not exactly clear how.
  • Mast cells are major players in GI pain. Mast cell degranulation activates the nerves inside the GI tract, which can cause abdominal pain. This causes pain in a number of GI diseases aside from mast cell disease.
  • Many mast cell patients have connective tissue disease like Ehlers Danlos Syndrome. This can cause the organs to not be supported properly, causing them to move around, activating a pain response.
  • Mast cells can cause bone pain in multiple ways. In systemic mastocytosis, production of so many mast cells in the bone marrow can cause pressure inside the bone that causes pain. Mast cell mediators can cause dysregulation of the system that degrades old parts of the bone and replaces it with new, stronger bone. This can cause the bones to be too thick or too thin. Mast cell patients may have bone disorders as a result and should be especially watchful for Mast cell mediators like histamine can also irritate the cells on the outside of the bone, causing pain.
  • Mast cell activation can cause headaches and migraines. Mast cell mediators can affect how much blood is getting to the head and brain, which can cause pain. Many mast cell patients have POTS, which can also cause the same problem.
  • Systemic mastocytosis patients can have dense infiltration of their organs by mast cells. This infiltration punches holes in the tissue, leading to inflammation and pain.
  • Cutaneous mastocytosis patients have similar issues with infiltration of the skin.
  • Infiltration is NOT necessary for mast cell activation to cause pain.
  • Mast cell patients have to be cautious in how they treat their pain as many medications for pain management can cause mast cell degranulation.
  • NSAIDs can be used in patients that tolerate them.
  • Acetaminophen and tramadol are considered mast cell friendly.
  • Gabapentin and pregabalin are sometimes used for neurologic pain in mast cell patients.
  • If opiates are needed, fentanyl and hydromorphone are preferred. Morphine is a massive mast cell degranulator and should be avoided.
  • Certain numbing medications can trigger mast cells, like ester caine anesthetics.
  • Cyclobenzamide is a muscle relaxer commonly used in mast cell patients.

 

For more information, please visit the following posts:

Mast cells in nerve pain

The Provider Primer Series: Medications that impact mast cell degranulation and anaphylaxis

Premedication and surgical concerns in mast cell patients

The Sex Series – Part Six: Male pelvic floor and mast cells

The Sex Series – Part Eight: Female pelvic floor dysfunction

The Sex Series – Part Nine: Female pelvic floor dysfunction

 

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 32

39. How are mast cell disease, Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and POTS connected? (Continued)

I’m answering this question in two parts because there is a lot of information to relay and it’s important that it is done clearly. This is the second part.

Mast cells are found throughout the body. There is no record of a person living without mast cells. They perform many essential functions. This is the reason why killing off all of a person’s mast cells is not a viable treatment for mast cell disease. While mast cells cause so many symptoms and problems for patients with mast cell disease, life is unsustainable without mast cells.

Let’s specifically consider just a few of the mast cell’s essential functions here and how they relate to POTS and EDS.

Mast cells help the body to regulate blood pressure and heart rate. Many of the mast cell’s chemicals do this so it happens in many different ways all stemming from mast cells. This means that when mast cells are not behaving appropriately, there are many ways in which this dysfunction can lead to not regulating blood pressure and heart rate correctly.

  • Histamine can affect blood pressure and heart rate differently depending upon how it acts on the body. If it uses the H1 receptors, it can cause low blood pressure. If it uses the H2 receptors, it elevates blood pressure. If it uses the H3 receptor, it can cause low blood pressure. When it does this at the H3 receptor, it’s because it tells the body not to release norepinephrine. Not releasing as much norepinephrine lowers heart rate and making the heart beat more weakly.
  • Prostaglandin D2 lowers blood pressure and causes fast heart beat. However, the molecule made by breaking down PGD2, called 9a,11b-PGF2 increases blood pressure.
  • Vasoactive intestinal peptide lowers blood pressure.
  • Heparin, chymase and tryptase can decrease blood pressure. They do this by helping to make a molecule called bradykinin. When this happens, a lot of fluid falls out of the blood stream and gets stuck in the tissues, causing swelling.
  • Thromboxane A2 increases blood pressure.
  • Many mast cell molecules affect the amount of angiotensin II. This molecule strongly drives the body toward high blood pressure. Some mast cell molecules that affect blood pressure this way include chymase and renin.

Another very essential function of mast cells is to make connective tissue. Mast cells help the body to shape itself correctly and to make tissue to heal wounds. When mast cells are not behaving appropriately, their dysfunction can interfere with making connective tissue and wound healing. It can cause wounds to heal very slowly or for there to be too much scar tissue. It can also cause the connective tissue to be too weak or too strong.

The interaction between POTS and mast cell disease

In POTS, the body is already predisposed toward not regulating blood pressure and heart rate correctly. When a person with POTS stands up, their body quickly causes the heart to beat very fast. When your body does this, it takes steps that cause mast cells to become activated. In turn, the mast cells release chemicals to try and regulate the heart rate. However, if you have mast cell disease, the mast cell may release the wrong chemicals, or too many chemicals, failing to regulate the heart rate. This in turn results in a situation where the body becomes very stressed. Stress activates mast cells, which results in more release of chemicals. Patients can very easily become trapped in a cycle where POTS and mast cell disease irritate each other.

POTS can be exacerbated by the use of medications that affect blood vessels. Medications that are vasodilators (that make the blood vessels bigger) are taken by many people, including mast cell patients. In some people, using medications that blocks the action of histamine or prostaglandins can help to improve symptoms of both POTS and mast cell disease. Conversely, some of the medications used to manage POTS, like beta blockers, can trigger mast cell reactions and raise the risk of anaphylaxis. However, some POTS treatments can also help alleviate mast cell symptoms, specifically the use of IV fluids.

A paper published in 2005 found that hyperadrenergic POTS was sometimes found in patients with mast cell activation disorders.

The interaction between EDS and POTS

POTS is a form of dysautonomia. Dysautonomia means dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system. This is the part of your nervous system that helps to control automatic functions like heart rate, blood pressure and digestion.

In EDS patients, the body does not make collagen correctly. Collagen is the most common connective tissue protein in the body. This can cause vascular laxity. Blood vessels change size depending upon how much blood they need to move through them. If they get larger, it is called vasodilation. When they get smaller, it is called vasoconstriction. When a person has vascular laxity, their vessels can get larger than they should and they can stay that way longer.

POTS is the most common form of orthostatic intolerance in HEDS. Orthostatic intolerance is when a patient has symptoms specifically as the result of standing up. All EDS patients have more autonomic symptoms than healthy people. Among patients with EDS, autonomic symptoms are more common and more severe in HEDS. 94% of HEDS patients have orthostatic symptoms, including lightheadedness, dizziness, palpitations, nausea, blurred vision, and anxiety. Dysautonomia is much worse in HEDS compared to CEDS and VEDS patients.

Patients with HEDS were found overall to have overactive sympathetic nervous systems. However, when their body needed to activate in response to regulate heart rate and blood pressure in response to changing position, their responses were not strong enough.

In EDS patients, the connective tissue does not support blood vessels enough. This makes the harder for the blood vessels to get the blood back to the right places when you stand up, exacerbating POTS.

The interaction between EDS and mast cell disease

Mast cells are involved in making and repairing connective tissue, which involves collagen. For this reason, there are many mast cells living in connective tissues. Mast cells are stimulated when the body is making or trying to make collagen. Because EDS causes the body to make collagen incorrectly, mast cells can become activated to try and make collagen and other connective tissue correctly. When mast cells in one place are activated a lot over a long time, they can activate other mast cells elsewhere, resulting in systemic symptoms.

The interactions among mast cell disease, POTS and EDS

It is undeniable that there is an association among mast cell disease, EDS and POTS. However, there is not much data published on this topic. There was a poster presented in 2015 that found some combination of EDS, POTS and MCAS in a group of 15 patients. This is a very small population and we need larger studies to understand incidence. There is ongoing work to tie this group of conditions to specific genetic markers. However, this also requires further investigation and more patients. In the absence of hard data, we are forced to use some early data and understanding of similar conditions to try and figure out exactly what happens. As more data comes out, this understanding may change.

This is very much a chicken and egg situation where it’s not clear exactly what begets what. EDS is a genetic disorder and considered primary. However, that does not necessarily mean POTS or mast cell disease is secondary in this scenario.

Regardless of which is the initiating condition, the relationship seems to be something like the following:

1. A patient has EDS. They make defective connective tissue. These defective tissues do not support the bodily organs and vessels properly.

2. A patient stands up. Blood quickly moves from the torso into the legs.

3. The blood vessels in the legs try become more narrow and more able to keep fluid in the bloodstream. However, in an EDS patient, the blood vessels are stretched out and not held in the right place because the connective tissue is too weak.

4. The blood vessels in the legs are not able to pump blood back to the heart quickly enough. The body interprets this as having low blood pressure.

5. The nervous system sends signals to increase heart rate to compensate for the “low” blood pressure.

6. The signals sent to increase heart rate activate mast cells.

7. Mast cells activate release mediators to try and regulate blood pressure and heart rate.

8. Mast cell mediators activate other mast cells, eventually affecting other parts of the body.

9. The molecules released by mast cells make blood vessels bigger and more leaky.

10. As fluid leaves the bloodstream and gets stuck in places where it can’t work (third spacing), blood pressure decreases and heart rate increases. This exacerbates POTS symptoms. The cycle repeats.

For more detailed reading, please visit these posts:

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 3 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 4 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 5 of 5

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 1)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 2)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 3)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 4)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 5)

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 1

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 2

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 3

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 4

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 5

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 6

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 7

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Disease, Part 22

I answered the 107 questions I have been asked most in the last four years. No jargon. No terminology. Just answers.

  1. Does mast cell disease cause cognitive issues?
  • Yes.
  • The most common cognitive issue reported by mastocytosis patients is “brain fog”, a sort of difficulty in thinking and reacting normally.
  • Inability to focus, pay attention, find words, and keep things in short term memory are frequently reported by mast cell patients. Attentive deficit disorders are sometimes seen.
  • Aside from the effects of mast cell disease on your body, they also affect the lives of patients dramatically. 42% of mastocytosis patients in one study reported a high stress level. I would be willing to bet that across the entire population of mast cell patients, the number of people that feel a lot of stress is a lot higher than 42%. Many patients feel hopeless, guilty, or like a burden. While this is distinct from depression, a neurologic disorder, these feelings can make it hard for patients to focus or pay attention.
  • Mast cell disease can lower serotonin. Even where this is not the case, mast cells can greatly impact the way serotonin works in the body. Serotonin in a chemical that nerves and other cells use to talk to each other. It is also important in cognition. While this isn’t totally understood yet, it appears that increasing serotonin levels can improve memory and decrease impairment. It can also improve ability to learn things. Not enough serotonin was associated with memory and learning difficulties.
  • When mast cells are activated, your body thinks there is an emergency or an infection. It can activate a stress response. One of the things your body does during this response is release cortisol. Cortisol can further activate mast cells. It is also released by mast cells. Over time, more cortisol than normal can really fatigue the body. Long term stress response is associated with a lot of cognitive issues, including brain fog.
  • Mast cell disease is very disruptive to your sleep cycle. Personally, this is one of the hardest parts of the disease for me. Your body naturally starts releasing more histamine around 10pm, every night, for everyone. Mast cell patients often have worsened symptoms starting around then and continuing overnight.
  • Another mast cell mediator, prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), is the strongest known inducer of sleep in the body. Mast cell patients may have this in excess, making them even more tired.
  • Despite the common idea that histamine makes you drowsy, it actually keeps you awake. Many mast cell patients have insomnia because of the histamine release overnight. This translates to being exhausted during the day when histamine levels drop. Lack of sleep is a well documented cause of cognitive dysfunction.
  • Many mast cell patients have POTS or another form of dysautonomia. These conditions can prevent getting enough blood and oxygen to the brain.

For more information, please visit these posts:

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 2

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 2

MCAS: Neurologic and psychiatric symptoms

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 10

I have answered the 107 questions I have been asked most in the last four years. No jargon. No terminology. Just answers.

17. Does mast cell disease impact mood, anxiety, and depression?
Yes. This has been described in literature for over 30 years. In 1986, a paper described a series of patients with systemic mastocytosis who had severe psychiatric symptoms as a result of their disease. It was called “mixed organic brain syndrome”.
Depression, anger, bipolar disorder, attention deficit disorders, anxiety, irritating, and panic disorders have all been associated with mast cell disease.
• One study found that in a group of patients with cutaneous mastocytosis and systemic mastocytosis, 75% of the patients had symptoms of depression. In another study, 60% had symptoms of depression or anxiety.
• Many patients have been diagnosed with a psychiatric condition before learning that they have mast cell disease. For many mast cell patients, managing their diseases lessens the severity of their psychiatric symptoms. Antihistamines have been reported many times to improve these symptoms.
• Mast cells are often sitting right next to nerve cells throughout the body. Mast cells are found in large numbers in the brain. Chemicals released by mast cells can cause psychiatric symptoms.
• Some of the chemicals released by mast cells are specifically intended to talk to nerve cells. Histamine is one such chemical. When histamine is not released in the right amounts at the right times, it can affect how other chemicals are released. Some of these chemicals are also for cells to talk to nerves, like serotonin and dopamine. Mast cells can also release serotonin.

18. Are medications for depression, anxiety or other psychiatric conditions used in mast cell patients?
Yes. As with every medication, only you and your care team can decide if a medication is safe for you. No medication is universally safe or always dangerous.
Benzodiazepines are usually well tolerated in mast cell patients. Benzodiazepines actually interact with mast cells and can make them release fewer chemicals. (Be aware that the IV forms of these medications sometimes have alcohol in them).
SSRIs are sometimes taken by mast cell patients. Mast cell patients should be cautious because they can increase serotonin levels and mast cells can also release serotonin.
• Tricyclic antidepressants are more commonly used in mast cell patients. Tricyclic antidepressants actually work as antihistamines, too.
• Other drugs that can manage psychiatric symptoms, like mirtazapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine, also have antihistamine properties.
For more detailed reading, please visit these posts:

 

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 2

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 2

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 3

I have answered the 107 questions I have been asked most in the last four years. No jargon. No terminology. Just answers.

6. What symptoms does mast cell disease cause?

  • Mast cell disease can cause just about any symptom. Seriously.
  • Mast cell disease can cause symptoms in every system of the body. This is because mast cells are found in tissues throughout the body. They are intimately involved in lots of normal functions of the human body. When mast cells are not working correctly, lots of normal functions are not carried out correctly. When this happens, it causes symptoms. In short, mast cells can cause symptoms anywhere in the body because they were there already to help your body work right.
  • Skin symptoms can include flushing, rashes, hives (urticaria), itching, blistering, and swelling under the skin (angioedema).
  • GI symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, problems with the GI not moving correctly in general (GI dysmotility), swelling of the GI tract, chest and abdominal pain, belching, bloating, discolored stool, excessive salivation, dry mouth, and trouble swallowing.
  • Cardiovascular symptoms include high or low blood pressure, fast or slow heart rate, irregular heartbeat, and poor circulation.
  • Neuropsychiatric symptoms include brain fog, difficulty concentrating, difficulty sleeping at night, excessive tiredness during the day, grogginess, anxiety, depression, tremors, numbness, weakness, burning and tingling (pins and needles), hearing loss, and auditory processing (difficulty understanding what was said to you).
  • Genitourinary symptoms include bladder pain, painful urination, painful intercourse/sexual activities, painful or irregular menstrual cycle (periods), and excessive or inadequate urination (too much or too little urine produced).
  • Respiratory symptoms include cough, excessive phlegm, wheezing, runny nose, sinus congestion, sneezing, and swelling of the airway.
  • General symptoms include fatigue, lack of stamina, difficulty exercising, itchy or watery eyes, and bruising easily.
  • There are some additional symptoms that I have observed in a large number of people that are not classically considered mast cell symptoms, but I now firmly believe them to be. One is fever. I think discoloration of the skin may be mast cell related for some people. Another is dystonia, involuntary muscle contraction, which can mimic appearance of a seizure. There are also different seizure-type episodes that may occur due to the nervous system being overactive. I am reluctant to call them pseudoseizures because that term specifically means they are caused as a result of mental illness. I have no evidence that these seizure-type episodes in mast cell patients occur due to mental illness. I personally refer to them as “mast cell derived seizures.” (For people who are wondering, I have been heavily researching this phenomenon and have some theories about why this happens. It’s not fleshed out enough yet to post but it’s on my think list.)
  • Having mast cell disease can make you more likely to have other conditions that cause symptoms.
  • I’m sure there are other symptoms I have forgotten to mention.

7. Why are skin and GI symptoms so common?

  • The skin has a lot of mast cells relative to other tissues. Your skin also comes into contact with lots of things in the environment. Think about the things your skin touches on a daily basis! It makes sense that it would get the exposure so skin symptoms can be common. Additionally, some of the chemicals mast cells release can cause fluid to become trapped in the skin. For these reasons, symptoms affecting the skin are pretty common.
  • The GI tract also has a lot of mast cells relative to other tissues. Your GI tract also comes in contact with lots of things in the environment. Let’s think about this for a minute. Your GI tract is essentially one long tube through your body. You put things from the environment in your GI tract at the top and they come back out the bottom of the tract. In a way, your GI tract is kind of like the outside of the inside of your body.
  • This is the analogy I learned in anatomy and physiology class to visualizing the GI tract as the outside of the inside of the body. Think of the body as a donut. (A low histamine, fully allergy friendly, requires no GI motility, wonderful donut.) Now think of the GI tract as the donut hole. You can put your finger through the hole in the middle of the donut. Only that center part of the donut will touch your finger. This is kind of like putting food throughout the GI tract. That food only touches a very small part of the body as it passes through.
  • Since what we put into our mouths (or other GI openings) is from the outside, your body has many mast cells in the GI tract to protect the body. Some of the chemicals mast cells release can cause fluid to become trapped in the layers of GI tissue. Some of the medications we take for mast cell disease can affect the GI tract. Some of them change how much acid we make in our stomachs. Some of them slow down the GI tract. A few of them speed it up or make the GI tract more fragile. For these reasons, symptoms affecting the GI tract are very common.

For more detailed reading, please visit these posts:

The Provider Primer Series: Management of mast cell mediator symptoms and release

The Provider Primer Series: Mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS)

The Provider Primer Series: Cutaneous Mastocytosis/ Mastocytosis in the Skin

The Provider Primer Series: Diagnosis and natural history of systemic mastocytosis (ISM, SSM, ASM)

The Provider Primer Series: Diagnosis and natural history of systemic mastocytosis (SM-AHD, MCL, MCS)

Mood disorders and inflammation: High cortisol and low serotonin (Part 2 of 4)

There are multiple suspect pathways for causation of mood dysregulation in the setting of inflammation. One well described model hinges upon the ability of inflammatory mediators to impact the HPA axis, a system of hormone release that drives many physiologic functions in addition to the stress response.  Briefly, the central pathway of the HPA axis is that CRH causes production of ACTH, which causes production of cortisol, a stress hormone and a very potent anti-inflammatory under most circumstances.  Many molecules can affect the signaling of the HPA axis and contribute to inappropriate hormone regulation.

IL-1, IL-6, TNF and IFN-a are all inflammatory mediators released by mast cells and other cells. These mediators all activate the HPA axis, resulting in high production of CRH, ACTH and cortisol via a series of intertwined mechanisms. At the same time, inflammation also makes cortisol less effective.  There are several ways for this to occur. Inflammation can cause cells to make fewer receptors for cortisol, meaning that no matter how much cortisol is made, only a small fraction will be able to act on cells.  Persistently high cortisol levels decrease production of other anti-inflammatory molecules and molecules that mediate the anti-inflammatory action of cortisol.  High cortisol also tells the HPA axis that it doesn’t need to make more cortisol, so even though more may actually be necessary, your body doesn’t know that.

All of these factors coalesce to form a reality where cortisol may be elevated but with little anti-inflammatory effect because of the changes I mentioned above. High cortisol is associated with mood symptoms.

Decrease of serotonin activity is also seen in mood disorders. Tryptophan is a precursor to serotonin, a hormone and neurotransmitter that heavily regulates mood.  Cortisol increases the activity of a molecule called tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), which removes the amino acid tryptophan from the pool of molecules to break down. Inflammatory molecules like interferon increase activity of the enzyme IDO, which decreases serotonin production.  IDO breaks down tryptophan to molecules that cannot be made into serotonin, such as kynerenin and quinolonic acid.  These metabolites have been observed as elevated in models of depression and anxiety.

Another way that inflammatory mediators affect the action of serotonin is to hasten its degradation. Both TNF and IL-6 increase the breakdown of serotonin to 5-HIAA.

References:

Furtado M, Katzman MA. Examining the role of neuroinflammation in major depression. Psychiatry Research 2015: 229, 27-36.

Rosenblat JD, et al. Inflamed moods: a review of the interactions between inflammation and mood disorders. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 2014; 53, 23-34.

Mood disorders and inflammation: Mediators (Part 1 of 4)

Mood disorders are the leading cause of disability in many countries around the world. Depression alone affects a staggering number of people, currently thought to be about 350 million people worldwide.  Its prevalence and diagnosis is increasing to such an extent that the WHO expects it to be the primary cause of global disease burden in less than 15 years.

Mood disorders are commonly found in patients diagnosed with inflammatory conditions.  Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, asthma, allergies and many autoimmune diseases co-occur with these psychiatric conditions.  While providers are often tempted to attribute depression, anxiety and maladaptive behaviors to the stress of having chronic health issues, a significant body of evidence firmly supports the idea that mood disorders are themselves inflammatory conditions and therefore biologically ordained. Furthermore, having a mood disorder can affect prognosis in some diseases.

A number of inflammatory molecules participate in immune response, including histamine, prostaglandins, bradykinin, leukotrienes, CRP, interferon, cortisol and cytokines.  These substances are released in response to physical stresses such as infection, trauma or disease process.  Psychological stress also triggers inflammatory response with increases of molecules such as IL-6, IL-1b, TNF and CRP.

Several studies have definitively found that mood symptoms are associated with increased levels of inflammatory markers.  PGE2, CRP, TNF, IL-1b, IL-2 and IL-6 were all elevated in both peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid in patients with major depressive disorder.  A massive 25-80% of hepatitis C patients experience depressive symptoms when they begin treatment with interferon, a potent inflammatory molecule. Elevated interferon and IL-2 levels have been observed early in the depressive event.

In human patients, studies have simulated an inflammatory response by inoculation with toxins, proteins associated with infectious organisms, or interferon. In one study, an inflammatory response was provoked by inoculation with Salmonella endotoxin.  While they suffered no physical symptoms, anxiety, depressed mood and decreased memory function was observed along with elevated TNF, IL-6 and cortisol levels.  Another study found that inoculation with LPS (a substance found in bacterial cell membranes) triggered a dose dependent increase in IL-6, IL-10, TNF, cortisol and norepinephrine, which in turn triggered a dose dependent increase in anxiety, “poor mind” and decreased long term memory functions.

References:

Furtado M, Katzman MA. Examining the role of neuroinflammation in major depression. Psychiatry Research 2015: 229, 27-36.

Rosenblat JD, et al. Inflamed moods: a review of the interactions between inflammation and mood disorders. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 2014; 53, 23-34.

 

Symptoms, mediators and mechanisms: A general review (Part 2 of 2)

 

Gynecologic symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Irregular and painful menstruation Histamine (H1), bradykinin Smooth muscle constriction
Uterine contractions Histamine (H1), serotonin, bradykinin Smooth muscle constriction

Increased estrogen

 

 

Neurologic symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Appetite dysregulation Histamine (H1), histamine (H3), leptin Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters, suppression of ghrelin
Disorder of movements Histamine (H2), histamine (H3) Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters, increases excitability of cholinergic neurons
Memory loss Histamine (H1), histamine (H3) Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters
Headache Histamine (H1), histamine (H3), serotonin (low) Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters

 

Low serotonin

 

Decreased blood flow to brain

Depression Serotonin (low), TNF, histamine (H1) Low serotonin

Disordered release of dopamine

Irregular sleep/wake cycle Histamine (H1), histamine (H3), PGD2 Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters
Brain fog Histamine (H3), inflammatory cytokines Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters, neuroinflammation
Temperature dysregulation Histamine (H3) Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters, dysfunctional release of catecholamines

 

 

Miscellaneous symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Bleeding diathesis (tendency to bleed easily) Tryptase, heparin Participation in anticoagulation pathways

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 2

Mast cell activation can induce neuropsychiatric symptoms. Degranulation has been linked previously to headache. It is possible that peptidergic and cholinergic neurons receive mast cell mediators and that this plays a role in headache pathology.  TNF is speculated to participate in depression.  Histamine may cause memory deficits, although there is conflicting information on this topic. Some patients have improvement in neuropsychiatric symptoms with antihistamines.

Mastocytosis patients who have GI and neuropsychiatric symptoms often have low serum serotonin.  Tryptophan is a precursor to serotonin. Plasma tryptophan is also often low in mastocytosis patients, while plasma IDO1 (indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase 1) activity is higher. IDO1 breaks down tryptophan through an alternate pathway that does not form serotonin. In this pathway, IDO1 breaks down tryptophan, forming kynurenic acid and quinolinic acid.  The accumulation of these substances could explain the fatigue and cognitive impairment in mastocytosis patients.  Low tryptophan and low serotonin in this population were associated with perceived stress and depression.

Treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in mast cell patients can include a variety of medications.   SSRI medications can reduce fatigue and depression in some inflammation models.  Some mast cell patients take these medications, usually with low starting doses in case mast cell degranulation in these people has conversely led to higher serotonin levels.  Bupropion, SNRIs and tricyclic medications are also commonly used for depressive symptoms in many chronic illness populations.

Some tricyclic antidepressants have antihistamine properties, with doxepin being a common choice.  Another tricyclic, amitriptyline, can inhibit release of mast cell mediators. Mianserin and mirtazapine can be prescribed for insomnia but also have antihistamine properties. Aprepitant could potentially be used in treatment of depression and cognitive impairment in mastocytosis and MCAS patients. Prochloperazine also decreases mast cell mediator release. Amantadine has improved depression and fatigue symptoms in multiple sclerosis patients. Inhibition of TNF with infliximab has improved depression in patients with high levels of inflammation.

Kynurenic acid, formed in the alternate tryptophan breakdown pathway described above, can block acetylcholine receptors, causing neurologic symptoms.  A7 agonists like nicotine could potentially overcome this effect.  Quinolinic acid binds at the NMDA receptor, cause neurologic symptoms.  Ketamine, an NMDA antagonist, can produce significant improvements in depressive symptoms in treatment resistant depression. As quinolinic acid is typically present in higher levels than kynurenic acid in mastocytosis patients, ketamine might offer a treatment for these patients with depression and high perceived stress.

Masitinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, was shown to decrease depression, anxiety and cognitive difficulties in a significant amount of mastocytosis patients. Mindful meditation may also help patients to lessen activation caused by psychological stress and therefore decreasing biological stress.

References:

Georgin-Lavialle S, et al. Mastocytosis in adulthood and neuropsychiatric disorders. Translational Resarch 2016; x:1-9.

Georgin-Lavialle S, et al. Leukocyte telomere length in mastocytosis: correlations with depression and perceived stress. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 35: 51-57.

Moura DS, et al. Neuropsychological features of adult mastocytosis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2014; 34(2): 407-422.

Moura DS, et al. Depression in patients with mastocytosis: prevalence, features and effects of masitinib therapy. PLoS One 2011, 6: e.26375.

Moura DS, et al. Evidence for cognitive impairment in mastocytosis: prevalence, features and correlations to depression. PLoS One 2012, 7: e.39468.

Smith JH, et al. Neurologic symptoms and diagnosis in adults with mast cell disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011, 113: 570-574.

Neuropsychiatric features of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 2

The fact that psychiatric symptoms occur as a function of mast cell disease on the nervous system is common knowledge to patients but less acknowledged by providers.  A significant population of mast cells is found in the brain in close association with both blood vessels and nerve cells.  Mast cells are present in large numbers in the hypothalamus, which regulates stress response, emotion and cognition; the amygdales, near the pituitary gland; and the thalamus.  Lesions and structural changes in the thalamus have previously been associated with altered perception of pain and emotional reactivity.

One study found that in a group of 88 patients with indolent systemic mastocytosis (ISM) and cutaneous mastocytosis (CM), 75% reported depressive symptoms.  In another study, a group of 288 mastocytosis patients had a prevalence of 60% depressive and anxiety-type symptoms.  The depressive symptoms seen most often in mastocytosis patients are affective and cognitive symptoms (depressed mood, low motivation, feelings of guilt and failure; and anxio-somatic symptoms (physical and mental effects of anxiety, insomnia).  Psychomotor difficulties (slowing of thought processes and/or neurologic control of movement) and lack of insight were rare in these patients.

Depression is often assessed using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale.  This tool may not be ideal for use in mast cell patients because the somatic symptoms correlated with depression are often the same as physical symptoms of mast cell disease.  When excluding symptoms that could be from mastocytosis rather than depression, patients still had a high prevalence of sadness and loss of motivation.

One mastocytosis cohort reported 38.6% had cognitive impairment of some kind. Inability to focus and pay attention is the cognitive symptom most commonly reported by mastocytosis patients.  This was not linked to depression, age, education or staging of mastocytosis.  Importantly, it was also independent of amount of antihistamine use.  Memory impairment was also not related to age or education.  Cognitive difficulties were found to be much more prevalent in mastocytosis patients than in other chronic disease populations.

Fatigue is a common neuropsychiatric symptom for mast cell patients and has been seen in populations with both mastocytosis and mast cell activation syndrome.  Patients who have moderate to severe fatigue often experience pain and cognitive deficits.  The level of fatigue can be disabling as it makes it difficult to focus or perform even simple tasks.

35% of mastocytosis patients in one study reported 35% had either acute or chronic headaches.  37.5% had migraines, while 17.2% had tension type headaches.  Headache patients often reported episodic flushing or itching at the time of the headache. In the migraine group, 66% experienced aura symptoms.  Overall, 39% of patients in this group with or without migraines experienced aura symptoms, usually visual.

Exaggeration of the stress response could explain neuropsychiatric symptoms in mast cell patients. In one population, 42% of patients perceived their stress level to be high. Persistent stress response could lead to negative emotions.  These symptoms could be reinforced by mast cell hyperactivity in the brain, which can affect stress response, emotionality and cognition.

References:

Georgin-Lavialle S, et al. Mastocytosis in adulthood and neuropsychiatric disorders. Translational Resarch 2016; x:1-9.

Georgin-Lavialle S, et al. Leukocyte telomere length in mastocytosis: correlations with depression and perceived stress. Brain Behav Immun 2014; 35: 51-57.

Moura DS, et al. Neuropsychological features of adult mastocytosis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2014; 34(2): 407-422.

Moura DS, et al. Depression in patients with mastocytosis: prevalence, features and effects of masitinib therapy. PLoS One 2011, 6: e.26375.

Moura DS, et al. Evidence for cognitive impairment in mastocytosis: prevalence, features and correlations to depression. PLoS One 2012, 7: e.39468.

Smith JH, et al. Neurologic symptoms and diagnosis in adults with mast cell disease. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011, 113: 570-574.