Supporting materials for explaining mast cell disease to non-health care professionals
A patient asked how to explain mast cell disease at a high level in a short period of time to legal professionals outside of medical field. The information presented here is largely taken from several sources, materials I had previously prepared for several cases to explain mast cell disease to non-health care professionals. It was difficult to organize all the concepts in the manner I prefer without rewriting everything. For this reason, the style of this article is more “stream of consciousness” than my typical writing.
The rest of the information discussed here is taken directly from work presented on MastAttack.
I also included technical details in appendices for reference. This information is also derived from articles published on MastAttack.
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Mast cell activation disorders (MCAD) are a group of conditions in which the mast cells in the body do not function correctly. Mast cells are responsible for allergic responses. They are the allergy cells in tissues.
In MCAD, patients can have allergic type reactions to things they are not allergic to, called mast cell reactions or degranulation reactions. These reactions can be very severe and even life threatening.
Mast cell reactions are caused by mast cells being improperly activated. Triggers vary from person to person. More common triggers include heat, cold, friction (especially on the skin), sunlight, foodstuffs, physical exertion, stress, dyes and fragrances. Because mast cell reactions can be dangerous, trigger avoidance is a crucial component of managing mast cell disease.
These reactions vary from person to person. Symptoms can include, but are not limited to, nausea, vomiting, hives, rashes, itching, flushing (turning red), dizziness, confusion and irritability. Symptoms are caused by the chemicals released by the mast cells. In severe cases, mast cell reactions can culminate in anaphylaxis, a severe, life threatening allergic reaction.
Due to the ubiquity of mast cells in bodily tissues, mast cell disease has the potential to cause an array of symptoms across multiple systems. Examples include flushing; acute or chronic urticaria; brain fog; anxiety; angioedema; tachycardia; hypotension; diarrhea; and chronic GI dysmotility, among others.
While many providers believe that hypertension excludes both mast cell disease and anaphylaxis, hypertension is common in mast cell patients. Data described and published in 2016 demonstrate that hypertension could affect as many as 31% of mast cell patients, including patients with systemic mastocytosis and mast cell activation syndrome.
In my experience, gastrointestinal symptoms are frequently the most debilitating and, in some instances, the most dangerous.
Mast cell disease greatly increases the risk of anaphylaxis. Patients are advised to carry two epinephrine autoinjectors at all times.
Allergic reactions to food are overwhelmingly common in this population. Furthermore, food reactions due to mast cell activation exhibit atypical features that complicate diagnosis and management. It is not unusual for mast cell patients to react to foods or medications they typically tolerate when mast cell activation is increased. Regaining tolerance for these substances can be complicated and time consuming. Regaining tolerance is not always possible.
Mast cell food reactions are influenced by the level of histamine circulating in the body at the time of consumption. Histamine levels fluctuate throughout the day in everyone as mast cell activation is necessary to perform many appropriate actions such as digestion and regulation of sleep. Other healthy activities, such as exercise or use of certain medications, also raise the level of circulating histamine. For these reasons, the severity of mast cell food reactions can fluctuate throughout the day.
Histamine level is also impacted by acute health state. For example, due to the importance of mast cell activation in immune defense, patients may find that their mast cell food reactions are more severe while fighting an infection, recovering from surgery, or healing a wound.
Given the nutritional constraints of limited diets, many patients eventually require use of elemental formulas, or partial or total parenteral nutrition (TPN) given intravenously.
Diagnosis
Mast cell activation syndrome is recently described phenomenon. As such, there are multiple sets of diagnostic criteria that reflect the personal experience of providers with mast cell patients. All sets of criteria include the following three items: recurrent or chronic symptoms of mast cell activation; objective evidence of excessive mast cell mediator release; and positive response to medications that inhibit action of mast cell mediators.
Mast cells produce and release a number of sensitive mediators that can be quantified and may be elevated in mast cell patients. Please note that testing is complicated as mediator levels can fluctuate wildly for a number of reasons. Elevation of serum tryptase; histamine or its metabolite, n-methylhistamine; prostaglandin D2 or its metabolite 9a,11b prostaglandin F2a; and leukotriene E4 is a positive marker for mast cell activation syndrome.
For further details, please refer to Appendix A: Diagnosis of mast cell activation syndrome and Appendix B: Mediator testing.
Management of mast cell disease
Management of symptoms of mast cell activation is complex and individualized. Typically, mast cell patients take baseline medications, including a second generation H1 antihistamine, like cetirizine; an H2 antihistamine, like famotidine; a mast cell stabilizer, like cromolyn; and a leukotriene inhibitor, like montelukast.
For further details, please refer to Appendix C: Management of mast cell activation syndrome.
Identification of triggers and causes
Mast cells are most well known for their importance in allergies and anaphylaxis. There are multiple mechanisms through which an allergy develops and affects the body. The most common pathway is via allergen specific IgE. IgE overwhelmingly drives the reaction to common food and environmental allergies as seen in the general population. IgE is also responsible for unusual presentations such as alpha-gal allergy, in which a patient develops an allergy to meat following a tick bite.
While IgE allergies are the most common presentation, there are a number of allergic conditions caused by alternative mechanisms. Examples of allergic GI conditions effected by alternative means include food protein induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES); food protein induced allergic proctocolitis; eosinophilic gastrointestinal disease (EGID); oral allergy syndrome; celiac disease; Heiner syndrome; and mast cell diseases, including systemic mastocytosis, mast cell activation syndrome, and monoclonal mast cell activation syndrome.
The current gold standard for identifying IgE mediated allergy triggers in the general population is scratch testing and RAST testing. These tests will not reveal mast cell triggers.
Scratch testing is unreproducible due increased activation of mast cells in the skin.
Scratch testing requires cessation of antihistamines in the days leading up to the test. Mast cell patients are advised not to stop any baseline meds without buy-in from their mast cell specialist for safety reasons.
RAST testing assesses the presence of allergen specific IgE. As most mast cell reactions are not IgE mediated, RAST testing will not identify most mast cell triggers.
If a patient has IgE allergies and mast cell disease concurrently, RAST testing will only identify IgE allergies and will not identify mast cell triggers. The only reliable method for identifying mast cell triggers is food trials. As mast cell reactions can culminate in anaphylaxis, food trials can pose significant risk to the patient.
Due to the fact that mast cell reactions are not mediated by IgE, it is impossible to infer other triggers based upon the structure of the allergen. For example, in the general population, allergy to one opiate increases the risk of allergy to another due to structural similarities. However, mast cell reaction to one opiate does not imply that other opiates would trigger a reaction in the same patient.
While in some instances the ensuing mast cell reaction from a trigger is not life threatening, there is always a possibility that this reaction can culminate in anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is a severe, life threatening, multisystem allergic event capable of causing shock, respiratory and cardiac arrest, and death.
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For additional reading in lay terms, The Mast Cell Disease Fact Sheet is a great resource. The 107 series presents detailed information on a variety of topics in lay terms as well.
For detailed technical information in medical jargon, The Provider Primer Series can be helpful.
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Appendix A: Diagnosis of mast cell activation syndrome
Diagnostic criteria
- MCAS is a recently described diagnosis. In the absence of large studies, several groups have developed their own, sometimes conflicting, diagnostic criteria.
- Differential diagnoses with potential to cause similar symptoms should be considered and excluded[iii].
- The criteria most frequently used include those by a 2010 paper by Akin, Valent and Metcalfe[iii]; a 2011 paper by Molderings, Afrin and colleagues[iv]; and a 2013 paper by Castells and colleagues[v].
- The criteria described in the 2011 paper by Molderings, Afrin and colleagues have been updated to include response to medication[vi].
- Of note, a 2012 consensus proposal[x] was authored by a number of mast cell experts including Valent, Escribano, Castells, Akin and Metcalfe. It sees little practical use and is not generally accepted in the community.
- The major sets of criteria listed above all include the following features:
- Recurrent or chronic symptoms of mast cell activation
- Objective evidence of excessive mast cell mediator release
- Positive response to medications that inhibit action of mast cell mediators
- Valent warns that in some cases, patients may not fulfill all criteria but still warrant treatment: “In many cases, only two or even one of these three criteria can be documented. In the case of typical symptoms, the provisional diagnosis of ‘possibly MCA/MCAS can be established, and in acute cases, immediate treatment should be introduced.”[vii]
Evidence of mediator release
- Mast cells produce a multitude of mediators including tryptase, histamine, prostaglandin D2, and leukotrienes C4, D4 and E4[viii].
- Serum tryptase and 24 hour urine testing for n-methylhistamine, prostaglandin D2, prostaglandin 9a,11b-prostaglandin F2a; are frequently included in testing guidelines in literature (Castells 2013)[ix], (Akin 2010)[x], (Valent 2012)[xi].
- It can be helpful to test for other mast cell mediators including 24 hour urine testing for leukotriene E4[xii].
Symptoms associated with mast cell activation
- Mediator release causes a wide array of symptoms, including hypertension[xv], hypotension, hypertension, wheezing, itching, flushing, tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, headache, angioedema, fatigue, and neurologic symptoms[iv].
- In a small MCAS cohort (18 patients), 17% had a history of anaphylaxis[xvii] . A larger data set is desirable.
- Patients with history of anaphylaxis should be prescribed epinephrine autoinjectors[v]. If patient must be on a beta blocker, they should be prescribed a glucagon injector for use in the event of anaphylaxis[v].
Response to medications that inhibit action of mast cell mediators
- Treatment of MCAS is complex and may require a number of medications. Second generation H1 antihistamines; H2 antihistamines; and mast cell stabilizers are mainstays of treatment[xvi].
- Additional options include aspirin; anti-IgE; leukotriene blocker; and corticosteroids[xiii] .
- First generation H1 antihistamines may be used for breakthrough symptoms[xiii] .
- “An important point is that many different mediators may be involved in MCA-related symptoms so that the final conclusion the patient is not responding to antimediator therapy should only be drawn after having applied several different antimediator-type drugs[xiii] .
- Inactive ingredients are often to blame for reaction to mast cell mediator focused medications. Many mast cell patients see benefit from having medications compounded[xvii].
References:
[i] Frieri M, et al. (2013). Mast cell activation syndrome: a review. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 13(1), 27-32.
[ii] Molderings GJ, et al. (2013). Familial occurrence of systemic mast cell activation disease. PLoS One, 8, e76241-24098785
[iii] Akin C, et al. (2010). Mast cell activation syndrome: proposed diagnostic criteria. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 126(6), 1099-1104.e4
[iv] Molderings GJ, et al. (2011). Mast cell activation disease: a concise practical guide for diagnostic workup and therapeutic options. Journal of Hematology & Oncology, 4(10), 10.1186/1756-8722-4-10
[v] Castells M, et al. (2013). Expanding spectrum of mast cell activation disorders: monoclonal and idiopathic mast cell activation syndromes. Clin Ther, 35(5), 548-562.
[vi] Afrin LB, et al. (2016). Often seen, rarely recognized: mast cell activation disease – a guide to diagnosis and therapeutic options. Annals of Medicine, 48(3).
[vii] Valent P. (2013). Mast cell activation syndromes: definition and classification. European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 68(4), 417-424.
[viii] Theoharides TC, et al. (2012). Mast cells and inflammation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Basis of Disease, 1822(1), 21-33.
[ix] Picard M, et al. (2013). Expanding spectrum of mast cell activation disorders: monoclonal and idiopathic mast cell activation syndromes. Clinical Therapeutics, 35(5), 548-562.
[x] Akin C, et al. (2010). Mast cell activation syndrome: proposed diagnostic criteria. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 126(6), 1099-1104.e4
[xi] Valent P, et al. (2012). Definitions, criteria and global classification of mast cell disorders with special reference to mast cell activation syndromes: a consensus proposal. Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 157(3), 215-225.
[xii] Lueke AJ, et al. (2016). Analytical and clinical validation of an LC-MS/MS method for urine leukotriene E4: a marker of systemic mastocytosis. Clin Biochem, 49(13-14), 979-982.
[xiii] Vysniauskaite M, et al. (2015). Determination of plasma heparin level improves identification of systemic mast cell activation disease. PLoS One, 10(4), e0124912
[xiv] Zenker N, Afrin LB. (2015). Utilities of various mast cell mediators in diagnosing mast cell activation syndrome. Blood, 126(5174).
[xv] Shibao C, et al. (2005). Hyperadrenergic postural tachycardia syndrome in mast cell activation disorders. Hypertension, 45(3), 385-390.
[xvi] Cardet JC, et al. (2013). Immunology and clinical manifestations of non-clonal mast cell activation syndrome. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep, 13(1), 10-18.
[xvii] Afrin LB. “Presentation, diagnosis and management of mast cell activation syndrome.” In: Mast Cells. Edited by David B. Murray, Nova cience Publishers, Inc., 2013, 155-232.
[xviii] Hamilton MJ, et al. (2011). Mast cell activation syndrome: a newly recognized disorder with systemic clinical manifestations. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 128(1), 147-152.e2
Appendix B: Mediator testing
Tryptase
- Tryptase is extremely specific for mast cell activation in the absence of hematologic malignancy or advanced kidney disease. Of note, rheumatoid factor can cause false elevation of tryptase[ix].
- Serum tryptase levels peak 15-120 minutes after release with an estimated half-life of two hours[vi].
- Per key opinion leaders, tryptase levels should be drawn 15 minutes to 4 hours after onset of anaphylaxis or activation event (Castells 2013[ii]), (Akin 2010[iii]), (Valent 2012)[iv]). Phadia, the manufacturer of the ImmunoCap® test to quantify tryptase, recommends that blood be drawn 15 minutes to 3 hours after event onset[vii].
- Serum tryptase >11.4 ng/mL is elevated[i].
- An increase in serum tryptase level during an event by 20% + 2 ng/mL above patient baseline is often accepted as evidence of mast cell activation[v],[i].
- Absent elevation of tryptase level from baseline during an event does not exclude mast cell activation[viii].
- Sensitivity for serum tryptase assay in MCAS patients was assessed as 10% in a 2014 paper[ix].
- A recent retrospective study of almost 200 patients found serum tryptase was elevated in 8.8% of MCAS patients[x].
Histamine and degradation product n-methylhistamine
- N-methylhistamine is the breakdown product of histamine.
- Histamine is degraded quickly. Samples should be drawn within 15 minutes of episode onset[vii].
- Serum histamine levels peak 5 minutes after release and return to baseline in 15-30 minutes[vii].
- Sample (urine or serum) must be kept chilled[xi].
- A recent retrospective study of almost 200 patients found that n-methylhistamine was elevated in 7.4% of MCAS patients in random spot urine and 5.4% in 24-hour urine[xi].
- Sensitivity of 24-hour n-methylhistamine for MCAS was assessed as 22% in 24-hour urine[ix].
- Plasma histamine was elevated in 29.3% of MCAS patients[xi].
Prostaglandin D2 and degradation product 9a,11b-prostaglandin F2a
- 9a,11b-prostaglandin F2a is the breakdown product of prostaglandin D2.
- Prostaglandin D2 is only produced in large quantities by mast cells. Basophils, eosinophils and other cells produce minute amounts[ix].
- A recent retrospective study of almost 200 patients found that PGD2 was elevated in 9.8% of MCAS patients in random spot urines and 38.3% in 24-hour urine[xi].
- PGD2 was elevated in 13.2% of MCAS patients in plasma[xi].
- 9a,11b-prostaglandin F2a was elevated in 36.8% in 24-hour urine[xi].
- Prostaglandins are thermolabile and begin to break down in a minutes. This can contribute to false negative results[xi].
Leukotriene E4
- Leukotriene E4 is produced by mast cells and several other cell types[ix] including eosinophils, basophils and macrophages.
- A recent retrospective study of almost 200 patients found that LTE4 was elevated in 4.4 % of MCAS patients in random spot urines and 8.3% in 24-hour urine[xi].
References:
[i] Theoharides TC, et al. (2012). Mast cells and inflammation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Basis of Disease, 1822(1), 21-33.
[ii] Picard M, et al. (2013). Expanding spectrum of mast cell activation disorders: monoclonal and idiopathic mast cell activation syndromes. Clinical Therapeutics, 35(5), 548-562.
[iii] Akin C, et al. (2010). Mast cell activation syndrome: proposed diagnostic criteria. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 126(6), 1099-1104.e4
[iv] Valent P, et al. (2012). Definitions, criteria and global classification of mast cell disorders with special reference to mast cell activation syndromes: a consensus proposal. Int Arch Allergy Immunol, 157(3), 215-225.
[v] Lueke AJ, et al. (2016). Analytical and clinical validation of an LC-MS/MS method for urine leukotriene E4: a marker of systemic mastocytosis. Clin Biochem, 49(13-14), 979-982.
[vi] Payne V, Kam PCA. (2004). Mast cell tryptase: a review of its physiology and clinical significance. Anaesthesia, 59(7), 695-703.
[vii] Phadia AB. ImmunoCAP® Tryptase in anaphylaxis. Retrieved from: http://www.phadia.com/Global/Market%20Companies/Sweden/Best%C3%A4ll%20information/Filer%20(pdf)/ImmunoCAP_Tryptase_anafylaxi.pdf
[viii] Sprung J, et al. (2015). Presence or absence of elevated acute total serum tryptase by itself is not a definitive marker for an allergic reaction. Anesthesiology, 122(3), 713-717.
[ix] Vysniauskaite M, et al. (2015). Determination of plasma heparin level improves identification of systemic mast cell activation disease. PLoS One, 10(4), e0124912
[x] Zenker N, Afrin LB. (2015). Utilities of various mast cell mediators in diagnosing mast cell activation syndrome. Blood, 126(5174).
[xi] Afrin LB. “Presentation, diagnosis and management of mast cell activation syndrome.” Mast Cells, edited by David B. Murray, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2013, 155-231.
[xii] Hui KP, et al. (1991). Effect of a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor on leukotriene generation and airway responses after allergen challenge in asthmatic patients. Thorax, 46, 184-189.
Appendix C: Management of mast cell activation syndrome
Mast cell disease is largely managed by treatment of symptoms induced by mast cell mediator release or by interfering with mediator release.
The following tables detail treatment recommendations described in literature by mast cell disease key opinion leaders. Please refer to source literature for future details on dosing, duration, and so on. These are not my personal recommendations and any and all treatment decisions must be made by a medical professional familiar with the patient.
Second and third generation H1 antihistamines are preferred to exclude neurologic symptoms accompanying use of first generation H1 antihistamines. However, first generation H1 antihistamines are sometimes used by mast cell patients and in the setting of anaphylaxis.
In advanced and aggressive forms of mast cell disease, use of cytoreductive agents, chemotherapy, and, very rarely, hematopoietic stem cell transplant may be considered.
Table 1: Primary treatment options (consensus) for mast cell mediator symptoms or release described in literature | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Class | Target | Intended actions of target | Symptoms associated with target | Reference | ||||||||||||||||||||||
H1 antihistamines (second or third generation preferred) | H1 histamine receptor | Promotes GI motility, vasodilatation and production of prostaglandins, leukotrienes and/or thromboxanes (via release of arachidonic acid) and nitric oxide | Hypotension, decreased chronotropy, flushing, angioedema, pruritis, diarrhea, headache, urticaria, pain, swelling and itching of eyes and nose, bronchoconstriction, cough, and airway impingement | Valent 2007[i], Picard 2013[ii], Molderings 2016[iii], Hamilton 2011[iv] | ||||||||||||||||||||||
H2 antihistamines | H2 histamine receptor | Release of gastric acid, vasodilation, smooth muscle relaxation, and modulates antibody production and release in various immune cells | Increased chronotropy, increased cardiac contractility, hypertensioni, bronchodilation, increased presence of Th2 T cells, increasing IgE production | Valent 2007, Picard 2013, Molderings 2016, Hamilton 2011 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Mast cell stabilizer (cromolyn) | Unknown targets to modulate electrolyte trafficking across the membrane to deter mast cell degranulation | Unclear. Mast cell mediator release regulates many physiologic functions, including allergy response, immune defense against pathogens, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling. | In theory, all symptoms derived from mast cell mediator release. Research has demonstrated decreased release of mediators including histamine and eicosanoids. | Valent 2007, Picard 2013, Molderings 2016, Hamilton 2011 |
Table 2: Primary treatment options (non-consensus) for mast cell mediator symptoms or release described in literature | ||||
Class | Target | Intended actions of target | Symptoms associated with target | Reference |
Leukotriene receptor antagonists | Leukotriene receptor | Smooth muscle contraction, immune cell infiltration, production of mucus | Bronchoconstriction, airway impingement, overproduction of mucus, pruritis, sinus congestion, runny nose | Hamilton 2011, Valent 2007 |
N/A; Vitamin C decreases histamine levels by accelerated degradation and by interfering with production | Unknown targets to deter mast cell degranulation | Mast cell mediator release regulates many physiologic functions, including allergy response, immune defense against pathogens, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling. | In theory, all symptoms derived from mast cell mediator release. Research has demonstrated decreased release of mediators including histamine and eicosanoids. | Molderings 2016 |
H1 antihistamine; mast cell stabilizer | Histamine H1 receptor and mast cell stabilizer (ketotifen) | See above for function of targets for H1 antihistamines and mast cell stabilizer | See above for symptoms targets for H1 antihistamines and mast cell stabilizer | Molderings 2016 |
Table 3: Secondary options for mast cell mediator symptoms or release described in literature | ||
Symptom | Treatment | Reference |
Abdominal cramping | H2 antihistamines, cromolyn, proton pump inhibitors, leukotriene antagonists, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Abdominal cramping | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, short course glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Abdominal pain | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, short course glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Angioedema | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, aspirin, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Angioedema | Medications used for hereditary angioedema, including antifibrinolytic such as tranexamic acid, bradykinin receptor antagonist | Molderings 2016 |
Blistering | Local H1 antihistamines, H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, systemic glucocorticoids, topical cromolyn, dressing | Valent 2007 |
Bone pain | Analgesics, NSAIDS, opiates and radiation if severe | Valent 2007 |
Bone pain | Bisphosphonates, vitamin D, calcium, anti-RANKL therapy | Molderings 2016 |
Colitis | Corticosteroids active in GI tract or systemic | Molderings 2016 |
Conjunctival injection | H1 antihistamines, topical H1 antihistamines, topical corticosteroids, topical cromolyn | Picard 2013 |
Conjunctivitis | Preservative free eye drops with H1 antihistamine, cromolyn, ketotifen or glucocorticoid | Molderings 2016 |
Dermatographism | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, aspirin, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Diarrhea | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, short course glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Diarrhea | H2 antihistamines, cromolyn, proton pump inhibitors, leukotriene antagonists, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Diarrhea | Bile acid sequestrants, nystatin, leukotriene receptor antagonists, 5-HT3 receptor inhibitors, aspirin | Molderings 2016 |
Flushing | H1 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, H2 antihistamines, glucocorticoids, topical cromolyn | Valent 2007 |
Flushing | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, aspirin, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Gastric symptoms | Proton pump inhibitors | Molderings 2016 |
Headaches | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn | Valent 2007 |
Headaches, poor concentration and memory, brain fog | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, cromolyn, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Interstitial cystitis | Pentosan, amphetamines | Molderings 2016 |
Joint pain | COX-2 inhibitors | Molderings 2016 |
Mastocytoma (if symptomatic, growing) | Local immunosuppressants, PUVA, removal | Valent 2007 |
Miscellaneous/ overall elevated symptom profile | Disease modifying anti-rheumatoid drugs, antineoplastic drugs, kinase inhibitors with appropriate target, anti-IgE, continuous antihistamine infusion | Molderings 2016 |
Nasal pruritis | H1 antihistamines, topical H1 antihistamines, topical corticosteroids, topical cromolyn | Picard 2013 |
Nasal stuffiness | H1 antihistamines, topical H1 antihistamines, topical corticosteroids, topical cromolyn | Picard 2013 |
Nausea | H2 antihistamines, cromolyn, proton pump inhibitors, leukotriene antagonists, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Nausea | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, short course glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Nausea | Dimenhydrinate, benzodiazepines, 5-HT3 inhibitors, NK1 antagonists | Molderings 2016 |
Neuropathic pain, paresthesia | Alpha lipoic acid | Molderings 2016 |
Non-cardiac chest pain | H2 antihistamines, proton pump inhibitors | Molderings 2016 |
Osteopenia, osteoporosis | Bisphosphonates, vitamin D, calcium, anti-RANKL therapy | Molderings 2016 |
Peptic ulceration/bleeding | H2 antihistamines, proton pump inhibitors, blood products as needed | Valent 2007 |
Pre-syncope/syncope | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, corticosteroids, anti-IgE | Picard 2013 |
Pruritis | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, topical cromolyn, PUVA treatment, leukotriene receptor antagonists, glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Pruritis | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, aspirin, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Pruritis | Topical cromolyn, topical palmitoylethanolamine containing preparations | Molderings 2016 |
Recurrent hypotension | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, systemic glucocorticoids, aspirin | Valent 2007 |
Respiratory symptoms | Leukotriene receptor antagonists, 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors, short-acting β-sympathomimetic | Molderings 2016 |
Severe osteopenia or osteoporosis | Oral bisphosphonates, IV bisphosphonates, interferon alpha | Valent 2007 |
Tachycardia | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, systemic glucocorticoids, aspirin | Valent 2007 |
Tachycardia | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, corticosteroids, anti-IgE | Picard 2013 |
Tachycardia | AT1 receptor antagonists, agents that target funny current | Molderings 2016 |
Throat swelling | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene antagonists, corticosteroids, anti-IgE | Picard 2013 |
Urticaria | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene receptor antagonists, aspirin, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Vomiting | H1 antihistamines, H2 histamines, oral cromolyn, leukotriene receptor antagonists, short course glucocorticoids | Valent 2007 |
Vomiting | H2 antihistamines, cromolyn, proton pump inhibitors, leukotriene antagonists, ketotifen | Picard 2013 |
Wheezing | H1 antihistamines, H2 antihistamines, leukotriene antagonists, corticosteroids, anti-IgE | Picard 2013 |
References:
[i] Valent P, et al. (2007). Standards and standardization in mastocytosis: Consensus statements on diagnostics, treatment recommendations and response criteria. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 37(6):435-453.
[ii] Picard M, et al. (2013). Expanding spectrum of mast cell activation disorders: Monoclonal and idiopathic mast cell activation syndromes. Clinical Therapeutics, 35(5):548-562.
[iii] Molderings GJ, et al. (2016). Pharmacological treatment options for mast cell activation disease. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmol, 389:671.
[iv] Hamilton MJ, et al. (2011). Mast cell activation syndrome: a newly recognized disorder with systemic clinical manifestations. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 128(1):147-152.e2