Skip to content

cardiovascular symptoms

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 62

76. Is it true that allergic reactions can cause heart attacks?

  • Yes.
  • Kounis Syndrome is an acute coronary syndrome caused by activated mast cells releasing chemicals. It is sometimes referred to as “allergic heart attack.” In acute coronary syndrome, there is not enough blood being pumped into the heart. It is named for two of the large blood vessels supplying oxygen to the heart, the coronary arteries. When not enough blood is getting to the heart via the coronary arteries, it can damage heart muscle, sometimes permanently. Heart attack and angina are examples of acute coronary syndromes.
  • In Kounis Syndrome, mast cells become activated, releasing lots of chemicals. These chemicals can irritate the coronary artery, causing it to spasm. This spasm reduces the amount of blood getting to the heart. Sometimes, mast cell activation can trigger the formation of a clot. A clot can be the reason not enough blood is passing through the artery.
  • Several of the molecules released by mast cells can affect the cardiovascular system and contribute to causing Kounis Syndrome. Histamine and leukotrienes can cause the coronary artery to narrow. It can also activate platelets, helping a clot to form. Both tryptase and chymase can cause clots formed elsewhere to break off and get stuck in the coronary artery.
  • Mast cells also help regulate an important molecule called angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a powerful regulator of blood pressure and can cause the coronary artery to narrow and tighten up.
  • People with Kounis Syndrome may have a history of coronary artery disease. Some patients have a stent in the coronary artery from a previous coronary issue. A stent is a tube that helps keep the blood vessel the right size so that the heart gets the blood it needs. However, many patients with Kounis Syndrome do not have any history of problems with their heart or blood vessels.
  • The symptoms of Kounis Syndrome sometimes look just like the symptoms of any other mast cell reaction or anaphylaxis, making it hard to know that a person is having Kounis Syndrome. Chest pain, irregular heart beat, the heart beating too fast or too slow, and palpitations are all common symptoms of Kounis Syndrome.
  • Another tricky thing about Kounis Syndrome is that it doesn’t always show up on the tests we use to look for heart attack or coronary issues. Because of this, doctors don’t always realize what is happening. Some people do have positive results to these tests, things like EKG, echocardiogram, chest x-ray, and bloodwork to look at levels at cardiac enzymes or troponin. Cardiac enzymes and troponins are often high in a person who is having a heart attack but are sometimes normal for patients with Kounis Syndrome.
  • In order to manage Kounis Syndrome, patients may need treatment for both the allergic reaction and the coronary syndrome.
  • Treatment for the allergic reaction is similar to anaphylaxis treatment: an H1 antihistamine like Benadryl, an H2 antihistamine like famotidine, a corticosteroid like methylprednisolone, IV fluids, and sometimes epinephrine, if that’s appropriate. Please note that epinephrine is not always appropriate for patients who have Kounis Syndrome because epinephrine can actually also cause the coronary artery to narrow.
  • Treatment for the cardiovascular aspect of Kounis Syndrome is very dependent upon symptoms and test results. Calcium channel blockers like verapamil, aspirin, and nitroglycerin are commonly used. Importantly, some of the common medications used to manage coronary syndrome are not safe for mast cell patients. These medications include beta blockers like metoprolol or atenolol, and, to a lesser extent, ACE inhibitors like lisinophil. These medications can interfere with epinephrine so epinephrine may not work if a patient needs it for anaphylaxis.
  • Anything that triggers mast cell activation can cause Kounis Syndrome, including emotional stress.

For additional information, please visit the following posts:
Kounis Syndrome: Subtypes and effects of mast cell mediators (Part 1 of 4)
Kounis Syndrome: Diagnosis (Part 2 of 4)
Kounis Syndrome: Treatment (Part 3 of 4)
Kounis Syndrome: Stress (Part 4 of 4)
Beta blockers and epinephrine
Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 5
Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 5
Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 3 of 5
Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 4 of 5
Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 5 of 5
The Provider Primers Series: Medications that impact mast cell degranulation and anaphylaxis

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 32

39. How are mast cell disease, Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and POTS connected? (Continued)

I’m answering this question in two parts because there is a lot of information to relay and it’s important that it is done clearly. This is the second part.

Mast cells are found throughout the body. There is no record of a person living without mast cells. They perform many essential functions. This is the reason why killing off all of a person’s mast cells is not a viable treatment for mast cell disease. While mast cells cause so many symptoms and problems for patients with mast cell disease, life is unsustainable without mast cells.

Let’s specifically consider just a few of the mast cell’s essential functions here and how they relate to POTS and EDS.

Mast cells help the body to regulate blood pressure and heart rate. Many of the mast cell’s chemicals do this so it happens in many different ways all stemming from mast cells. This means that when mast cells are not behaving appropriately, there are many ways in which this dysfunction can lead to not regulating blood pressure and heart rate correctly.

  • Histamine can affect blood pressure and heart rate differently depending upon how it acts on the body. If it uses the H1 receptors, it can cause low blood pressure. If it uses the H2 receptors, it elevates blood pressure. If it uses the H3 receptor, it can cause low blood pressure. When it does this at the H3 receptor, it’s because it tells the body not to release norepinephrine. Not releasing as much norepinephrine lowers heart rate and making the heart beat more weakly.
  • Prostaglandin D2 lowers blood pressure and causes fast heart beat. However, the molecule made by breaking down PGD2, called 9a,11b-PGF2 increases blood pressure.
  • Vasoactive intestinal peptide lowers blood pressure.
  • Heparin, chymase and tryptase can decrease blood pressure. They do this by helping to make a molecule called bradykinin. When this happens, a lot of fluid falls out of the blood stream and gets stuck in the tissues, causing swelling.
  • Thromboxane A2 increases blood pressure.
  • Many mast cell molecules affect the amount of angiotensin II. This molecule strongly drives the body toward high blood pressure. Some mast cell molecules that affect blood pressure this way include chymase and renin.

Another very essential function of mast cells is to make connective tissue. Mast cells help the body to shape itself correctly and to make tissue to heal wounds. When mast cells are not behaving appropriately, their dysfunction can interfere with making connective tissue and wound healing. It can cause wounds to heal very slowly or for there to be too much scar tissue. It can also cause the connective tissue to be too weak or too strong.

The interaction between POTS and mast cell disease

In POTS, the body is already predisposed toward not regulating blood pressure and heart rate correctly. When a person with POTS stands up, their body quickly causes the heart to beat very fast. When your body does this, it takes steps that cause mast cells to become activated. In turn, the mast cells release chemicals to try and regulate the heart rate. However, if you have mast cell disease, the mast cell may release the wrong chemicals, or too many chemicals, failing to regulate the heart rate. This in turn results in a situation where the body becomes very stressed. Stress activates mast cells, which results in more release of chemicals. Patients can very easily become trapped in a cycle where POTS and mast cell disease irritate each other.

POTS can be exacerbated by the use of medications that affect blood vessels. Medications that are vasodilators (that make the blood vessels bigger) are taken by many people, including mast cell patients. In some people, using medications that blocks the action of histamine or prostaglandins can help to improve symptoms of both POTS and mast cell disease. Conversely, some of the medications used to manage POTS, like beta blockers, can trigger mast cell reactions and raise the risk of anaphylaxis. However, some POTS treatments can also help alleviate mast cell symptoms, specifically the use of IV fluids.

A paper published in 2005 found that hyperadrenergic POTS was sometimes found in patients with mast cell activation disorders.

The interaction between EDS and POTS

POTS is a form of dysautonomia. Dysautonomia means dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system. This is the part of your nervous system that helps to control automatic functions like heart rate, blood pressure and digestion.

In EDS patients, the body does not make collagen correctly. Collagen is the most common connective tissue protein in the body. This can cause vascular laxity. Blood vessels change size depending upon how much blood they need to move through them. If they get larger, it is called vasodilation. When they get smaller, it is called vasoconstriction. When a person has vascular laxity, their vessels can get larger than they should and they can stay that way longer.

POTS is the most common form of orthostatic intolerance in HEDS. Orthostatic intolerance is when a patient has symptoms specifically as the result of standing up. All EDS patients have more autonomic symptoms than healthy people. Among patients with EDS, autonomic symptoms are more common and more severe in HEDS. 94% of HEDS patients have orthostatic symptoms, including lightheadedness, dizziness, palpitations, nausea, blurred vision, and anxiety. Dysautonomia is much worse in HEDS compared to CEDS and VEDS patients.

Patients with HEDS were found overall to have overactive sympathetic nervous systems. However, when their body needed to activate in response to regulate heart rate and blood pressure in response to changing position, their responses were not strong enough.

In EDS patients, the connective tissue does not support blood vessels enough. This makes the harder for the blood vessels to get the blood back to the right places when you stand up, exacerbating POTS.

The interaction between EDS and mast cell disease

Mast cells are involved in making and repairing connective tissue, which involves collagen. For this reason, there are many mast cells living in connective tissues. Mast cells are stimulated when the body is making or trying to make collagen. Because EDS causes the body to make collagen incorrectly, mast cells can become activated to try and make collagen and other connective tissue correctly. When mast cells in one place are activated a lot over a long time, they can activate other mast cells elsewhere, resulting in systemic symptoms.

The interactions among mast cell disease, POTS and EDS

It is undeniable that there is an association among mast cell disease, EDS and POTS. However, there is not much data published on this topic. There was a poster presented in 2015 that found some combination of EDS, POTS and MCAS in a group of 15 patients. This is a very small population and we need larger studies to understand incidence. There is ongoing work to tie this group of conditions to specific genetic markers. However, this also requires further investigation and more patients. In the absence of hard data, we are forced to use some early data and understanding of similar conditions to try and figure out exactly what happens. As more data comes out, this understanding may change.

This is very much a chicken and egg situation where it’s not clear exactly what begets what. EDS is a genetic disorder and considered primary. However, that does not necessarily mean POTS or mast cell disease is secondary in this scenario.

Regardless of which is the initiating condition, the relationship seems to be something like the following:

1. A patient has EDS. They make defective connective tissue. These defective tissues do not support the bodily organs and vessels properly.

2. A patient stands up. Blood quickly moves from the torso into the legs.

3. The blood vessels in the legs try become more narrow and more able to keep fluid in the bloodstream. However, in an EDS patient, the blood vessels are stretched out and not held in the right place because the connective tissue is too weak.

4. The blood vessels in the legs are not able to pump blood back to the heart quickly enough. The body interprets this as having low blood pressure.

5. The nervous system sends signals to increase heart rate to compensate for the “low” blood pressure.

6. The signals sent to increase heart rate activate mast cells.

7. Mast cells activate release mediators to try and regulate blood pressure and heart rate.

8. Mast cell mediators activate other mast cells, eventually affecting other parts of the body.

9. The molecules released by mast cells make blood vessels bigger and more leaky.

10. As fluid leaves the bloodstream and gets stuck in places where it can’t work (third spacing), blood pressure decreases and heart rate increases. This exacerbates POTS symptoms. The cycle repeats.

For more detailed reading, please visit these posts:

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 1 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 2 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 3 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 4 of 5

Cardiovascular manifestations of mast cell disease: Part 5 of 5

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 1)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 2)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 3)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 4)

Hypermobility Type Ehlers Danlos Syndrome and Autonomic Dysfunction (Part 5)

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 1

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 2

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 3

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 4

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 5

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 6

Deconditioning, orthostatic intolerance, exercise and chronic illness: Part 7

The MastAttack 107: The Layperson’s Guide to Understanding Mast Cell Diseases, Part 3

I have answered the 107 questions I have been asked most in the last four years. No jargon. No terminology. Just answers.

6. What symptoms does mast cell disease cause?

  • Mast cell disease can cause just about any symptom. Seriously.
  • Mast cell disease can cause symptoms in every system of the body. This is because mast cells are found in tissues throughout the body. They are intimately involved in lots of normal functions of the human body. When mast cells are not working correctly, lots of normal functions are not carried out correctly. When this happens, it causes symptoms. In short, mast cells can cause symptoms anywhere in the body because they were there already to help your body work right.
  • Skin symptoms can include flushing, rashes, hives (urticaria), itching, blistering, and swelling under the skin (angioedema).
  • GI symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, problems with the GI not moving correctly in general (GI dysmotility), swelling of the GI tract, chest and abdominal pain, belching, bloating, discolored stool, excessive salivation, dry mouth, and trouble swallowing.
  • Cardiovascular symptoms include high or low blood pressure, fast or slow heart rate, irregular heartbeat, and poor circulation.
  • Neuropsychiatric symptoms include brain fog, difficulty concentrating, difficulty sleeping at night, excessive tiredness during the day, grogginess, anxiety, depression, tremors, numbness, weakness, burning and tingling (pins and needles), hearing loss, and auditory processing (difficulty understanding what was said to you).
  • Genitourinary symptoms include bladder pain, painful urination, painful intercourse/sexual activities, painful or irregular menstrual cycle (periods), and excessive or inadequate urination (too much or too little urine produced).
  • Respiratory symptoms include cough, excessive phlegm, wheezing, runny nose, sinus congestion, sneezing, and swelling of the airway.
  • General symptoms include fatigue, lack of stamina, difficulty exercising, itchy or watery eyes, and bruising easily.
  • There are some additional symptoms that I have observed in a large number of people that are not classically considered mast cell symptoms, but I now firmly believe them to be. One is fever. I think discoloration of the skin may be mast cell related for some people. Another is dystonia, involuntary muscle contraction, which can mimic appearance of a seizure. There are also different seizure-type episodes that may occur due to the nervous system being overactive. I am reluctant to call them pseudoseizures because that term specifically means they are caused as a result of mental illness. I have no evidence that these seizure-type episodes in mast cell patients occur due to mental illness. I personally refer to them as “mast cell derived seizures.” (For people who are wondering, I have been heavily researching this phenomenon and have some theories about why this happens. It’s not fleshed out enough yet to post but it’s on my think list.)
  • Having mast cell disease can make you more likely to have other conditions that cause symptoms.
  • I’m sure there are other symptoms I have forgotten to mention.

7. Why are skin and GI symptoms so common?

  • The skin has a lot of mast cells relative to other tissues. Your skin also comes into contact with lots of things in the environment. Think about the things your skin touches on a daily basis! It makes sense that it would get the exposure so skin symptoms can be common. Additionally, some of the chemicals mast cells release can cause fluid to become trapped in the skin. For these reasons, symptoms affecting the skin are pretty common.
  • The GI tract also has a lot of mast cells relative to other tissues. Your GI tract also comes in contact with lots of things in the environment. Let’s think about this for a minute. Your GI tract is essentially one long tube through your body. You put things from the environment in your GI tract at the top and they come back out the bottom of the tract. In a way, your GI tract is kind of like the outside of the inside of your body.
  • This is the analogy I learned in anatomy and physiology class to visualizing the GI tract as the outside of the inside of the body. Think of the body as a donut. (A low histamine, fully allergy friendly, requires no GI motility, wonderful donut.) Now think of the GI tract as the donut hole. You can put your finger through the hole in the middle of the donut. Only that center part of the donut will touch your finger. This is kind of like putting food throughout the GI tract. That food only touches a very small part of the body as it passes through.
  • Since what we put into our mouths (or other GI openings) is from the outside, your body has many mast cells in the GI tract to protect the body. Some of the chemicals mast cells release can cause fluid to become trapped in the layers of GI tissue. Some of the medications we take for mast cell disease can affect the GI tract. Some of them change how much acid we make in our stomachs. Some of them slow down the GI tract. A few of them speed it up or make the GI tract more fragile. For these reasons, symptoms affecting the GI tract are very common.

For more detailed reading, please visit these posts:

The Provider Primer Series: Management of mast cell mediator symptoms and release

The Provider Primer Series: Mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS)

The Provider Primer Series: Cutaneous Mastocytosis/ Mastocytosis in the Skin

The Provider Primer Series: Diagnosis and natural history of systemic mastocytosis (ISM, SSM, ASM)

The Provider Primer Series: Diagnosis and natural history of systemic mastocytosis (SM-AHD, MCL, MCS)

The Provider Primer Series: Relevance of mast cells in common health scenarios (continued)

Reason for care Post op care
Role of mast cells Mast cells are inherently activated following surgery as they drive tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and wound repair.[i]

Mast cells are involved in the transmission of pain stimuli.[iii]

Impact of condition on mast cells Mechanical trauma or pressure, such as dressing a wound or palpating the area, can directly induce degranulation and mast cell activation[ii].

Pain can trigger mast cell activation.[iii]

Psychological and physical stress can trigger an inflammatory response that involves mast cell activation.[iv]

Notes regarding condition treatment NSAIDS can trigger mast cell degranulation and cannot be taken by some mast cell patients.[iv]

Codeine and derivatives can trigger mast cell degranulation[v].

Vancomycin, gyrase inhibitors and cefuroxime should be avoided where possible due to risk of mast cell activation.[vi]

Amide caine anesthetics are preferred over ester caines.[vi]

ACE inhibitors and β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta blockers) should be avoided. In particular, beta blockers directly interfere with the action of epinephrine and can impede anaphylaxis management.[vi]

Fentanyl and fentanyl derivatives are the preferred narcotic for mast cell patients due to low risk of degranulation. Hydromorphone and oxycodone are suggested by some authors and see use in mast cell patients.[vi]

Benzodiazepines can provide anxiolytic and anticonvulsive support in mast cell patients are needed.[vi]

IV contrast poses significant to mast cell patients due to the high risk of systemic degranulation. If required, premedication is advised.[vi]

Adhesive allergy is not unusual and patients may require specific occlusive dressings, tapes, or wound glue.

Notes regarding mast cell treatment Antihistamines and mast cell stabilizers can be helpful in mitigating common post op symptoms such as opiate induced itching and nausea. COX inhibitors can help with pain management.[vii]
Special considerations for mast cell patients Mast cells are the largest reservoir of endogenous heparin. Patient should be monitored for coagulopathy.[viii]

Mast cells contribute significantly to post operative ileus.[ix]

Intestinal manipulation directly results in mast cell degranulation.[ix]

 

Reason for care Hypertension
Role of mast cells Mast cell mediators can impact blood pressure. Histamine acting on H2 receptor can promote hypertension.[xi]

Renin, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A all participate in hypertension by dysregulation of angiotensin II.[xi]

9a,11b-PGF2, the degradation product of prostaglandin D2, thromboxane A2, and leukotrienes increase blood pressure.[xi]

Impact of condition on mast cells Dysregulation of angiotensin II and renin levels can affect mast cell behavior.[x]
Notes regarding condition treatment ACE inhibitors and β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta blockers) should be avoided. In particular, beta blockers directly interfere with the action of epinephrine and can impede anaphylaxis management. Alternatives include calcium channel blockers, renin inhibitors, and ivabradine, among others.[vi]
Notes regarding mast cell treatment Several mast cell medications can impact levels of histamine, renin, and angiotensin II, all of which can affect blood pressure.
Special considerations for mast cell patients Mast cell patients taking β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta blockers) should carry a glucagon pen to increase efficacy of epinephrine in anaphylaxis.[xi]

As many as 31% of patients with mast cell disease demonstrate elevated arterial blood pressure secondary to mast cell activation. These elevations may be episodic or chronic.[xi]

Mast cell patients may also have hyperadrenergic postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (hyperPOTS), a condition that can cause hypertension.[xii]

 

Reason for care Heart disease
Role of mast cells Renin, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A all participate in hypertension by dysregulation of angiotensin II, contributing to evolution of arrhythmia.[xi]

Prostaglandin D2, VIP, PAF, IL-6 and nitric oxide are all vasodilating and can contribute to tachycardia.[xi]

Tryptase, histamine, PAF, IL-10, TNF, IL-4, IL-6, FGF, and TGFB can contribute to heart failure.[xi]

Mast cells participate in the formation, destabilization and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions.[xiii]

Histamine release is associated with acute coronary syndromes such as Kounis Syndrome, commonly known as “allergic MI” or “allergic angina”.[xiv]

Leukotriene C4, adrenomedullin, tryptase and chymase participate in the formation, destabilization and rupture of aneurysms.[xiii]

Impact of condition on mast cells Heart disease, especially heart failure, can disrupt release of catecholamines including norepinephrine.[xv] Norepinephrine dysregulation can impact mast cell behavior.

Dysregulation of angiotensin II and renin levels can affect mast cell behaviorx

Notes regarding condition treatment NSAIDS can trigger mast cell degranulation. Some mast cell patients are unable to take them.xx

Acetaminophen is generally recommended for use in mast cell patients.[iv]

ACE inhibitors and β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta blockers) should be avoided. In particular, beta blockers directly interfere with the action of epinephrine and can impede anaphylaxis management. Alternatives include calcium channel blockers, renin inhibitors, and ivabradine, among others.[vi]

Notes regarding mast cell treatment COX inhibitors are routinely taken by mast cell patients and may provide relief of prostaglandin induced symptoms.[vi]

Several mast cell medications can impact levels of histamine, renin, and angiotensin II, all of which can affect blood pressure.

Epinephrine can provoke myocardial ischemia, prolong QT interval, and exacerbate coronary vasospasm and arrhythmia.[xiv]

Special considerations for mast cell patients Over 20% of systemic mastocytosis and mast cell activation syndrome patients experience palpitations and supraventricular tachycardia.[xi]

Prostaglandin D2 can cause tachycardia. PGD2 is associated with late phase allergic response and symptoms may be delayed for several hours after allergic event.[xi]

One study showed that 12/18 mast cell activation syndrome patients showed diastolic left ventricular dysfunction.[xi]

Mast cell patients may also have postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), a condition that can cause blood pressure and heart rate irregularities.[xii]

 

Reason for care Chest pain
Role of mast cells Mast cells participate in the formation, destabilization and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions.[xiii]

Histamine release is associated with acute coronary syndromes such as Kounis Syndrome, commonly known as “allergic MI” or “allergic angina”.[xiv]

Leukotriene C4, adrenomedullin, tryptase and chymase participate in the formation, destabilization and rupture of aneurysms.[xiii]

Mast cells participate in esophageal inflammation in several models, including from acid reflux.[xvi]

Mast cells contribute to GI dysmotility which can cause esophageal spasms.[xvii]

Mast cells are involved in the transmission of pain stimuli.[iii]

Impact of condition on mast cells Pain can trigger mast cell activation.[iii]

Psychological and physical stress can trigger an inflammatory response that involves mast cell activation.[iv]

Notes regarding condition treatment NSAIDS can trigger mast cell degranulation. Some mast cell patients are unable to take them.xx

Acetaminophen is generally recommended for use in mast cell patients.[iv]

Fentanyl and fentanyl derivatives are the preferred narcotic for mast cell patients due to low risk of degranulation. Hydromorphone and oxycodone are suggested by some authors and see use in mast cell patients.[vi]

Benzodiazepines can provide anxiolytic and anticonvulsive support in mast cell patients are needed.[vi]

ACE inhibitors and β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (beta blockers) should be avoided. In particular, beta blockers directly interfere with the action of epinephrine and can impede anaphylaxis management. Alternatives include calcium channel blockers, renin inhibitors, and ivabradine, among others.[vi]

Notes regarding mast cell treatment COX inhibitors are routinely taken by mast cell patients and may provide relief of prostaglandin induced symptoms.[vi]
Special considerations for mast cell patients Mast cell patients may experience GI dysmotility which can cause esophageal spasms.[xviii]

Mast cell patients sometimes have eosinophilic esophagitis, causing esophageal spasms, food impaction, and pain.[xix]

Over 20% of systemic mastocytosis and mast cell activation syndrome patients experience palpitations and supraventricular tachycardia.[xi]

Prostaglandin D2 can cause tachycardia. PGD2 is associated with late phase allergic response and symptoms may be delayed for several hours after allergic event.[xi]

One study showed that 12/18 mast cell activation syndrome patients showed diastolic left ventricular dysfunction.[xi]

Mast cell patients can present with Kounis Syndrome. Management of Kounis Syndrome relies upon addressing both cardiovascular aspects of the episode as well as allergic aspects.[xiv]

Costochondritis can occur in mast cell patients and may present as chest pain.

Mast cell patients may also have postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), a condition that can cause blood pressure and heart rate irregularities.[xii]

IV contrast poses significant to mast cell patients due to the high risk of systemic degranulation. If required, premedication is advised.[vi]

References:

[i] Douaiher J, et al. (2014). Development of mast cells and importance of their tryptase and chymase serine proteases in inflammation and wound healing. Adv Immunol, 122, 211-252.

[ii] Zhang D, et al. (2012). Mast-cell degranulation induced by physical stimuli involves the activation of transient receptor-potential channel TRPV2. Physiol Res, 61(1), 113-124.

[iii] Chatterjea D, Martinov T. (2015). Mast cells: versatile gatekeepers of pain. Mol Immunol, 63(1),38-44.

[iv] Dewachter P, et al. (2014). Perioperative management of patients with mastocytosis. Anesthesiology, 120, 753-759.

[v] Brockow K, Bonadonna P. (2012). Drug allergy in mast cell disease. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol, 12, 354-360.

[vi] Molderings GJ, et al. (2016). Pharma,ological treatment options for mast cell activation disease. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmol, 389:671.

[vii] Molderings GJ, et al. (2011). Mast cell activation disease: a concise, practical guide to diagnostic workup and therapeutic options. J Hematol Oncol, 4(10).

[viii] Carvalhosa AB, et al. (2015). A French national survey on clotting disorders in mastocytosis. Medicine (Baltimore), 94(40).

[ix] Peters EG, et al. (2015). The contribution of mast cells to postoperative ileus in experimental and clinical studies. Neurogastroenterol Motil, 27(6), 743-749.

[x] Biscotte SM, et al. (2007). Angiotensin II mediated activation of cardiac mast cells. The FASEB Journal, 21(6).

[xi] Kolck UW, et al. (2016). Cardiovascular symptoms in patients with systemic mast cell activation disease. Translation Research, x, 1-10.

[xii] Shibao C, et al. (2005). Hyperadrenergic postural tachycardia syndrome in mast cell activation disorders. Hypertension, 45, 385-390.

[xiii] Kennedy S, et al. (2013). Mast cells and vascular diseases. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 138, 53-65.

[xiv] Kounis NG. (2016). Kounis Syndrome: an update on epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapeutic management. Clin Chem Lab Med, 54(10), 1545-1559.

[xv] Florea VG, Cohn JN. (2014). The autonomic nervous system and heart failure. Circulation Research, 114, 1815-1826.

[xvi] Morganstern JA, et al. (2008). Direct evidence of mast cell participation in acute acid-induced inflammation in mice. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 46(2), 134-138.

[xvii] De Winter BY, et al. (2012). Intestinal mast cells in gut inflammation and motility disturbances. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular Basis of Disease, 1822(1), 66-73.

[xviii] De Winter BY, et al. (2012). Intestinal mast cells in gut inflammation and motility disturbances. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular Basis of Disease, 1822(1), 66-73.

[xix] Nurko S, Rosen R. (2010). Esophageal dysmotility in patients with eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am, 18(1), 73-ix.

Take home points: July 2015

Mast cell interactions with B and T cells
• Mast cells communicate with other cells by:
o Releasing chemicals to tell another cell to do something
o Other cells releasing chemicals to tell mast cells to do something
o Moving right up against other cells, which allows the cells to “talk”
• B cells are white blood cells that make antibodies and protect against infections.
o Mast cells can tell B cells to make IgE, an allergy antibody.
o When mast cells touch B cells, the mast cells can release IL-6 which tells B cells to live longer.
o Mast cells can tell B cells to make IgA, an antibody.
• T cells are white blood cells that have many functions.
o T cells and mast cells are found close together in many inflammatory conditions, like ulcerative colitis.
o Activated T cells can activate mast cells.
o Mast cells can tell T cells to proliferate and produce inflammatory molecules.
o A kind of T cell called Treg (T reg, like in regulatory) cells can make mast cells harder to activate and interfere with degranulation.

Mast cells in kidney disease
• Kidney disease is often not identified until 60-70% of functional kidney cells have been damaged beyond repair.
• Mast cells are rare in healthy kidneys.
o Damaged kidneys can have up to 60x the normal amount of mast cells.
o Mast cell count is not related to disease severity.
• Atopic disease, like atopic dermatitis and allergic asthma, is linked to idiopathic nephrotic disease, kidney disease of unknown origin.
o The nephrotic disease and atopic disease could be manifestations of the same overarching condition.
o In patients with both, IgE levels are high.
• Tryptase is elevated in some patients with kidney damage.
• Mast cells are responsible for bringing other inflammatory cells to the damaged kidney.
• Mast cells can cause fibrosis in kidneys.
• In some roles, mast cells can protect kidneys from damage.

Regulation of mast cells by IgE and stem cell factor (SCF)
• Mast cells are mostly regulated in two ways
• IgE binds to the IgE receptor (FceRI) on mast cells and activates them
o Activation by IgE results in degranulation and secretion of mediators
o IgE induces mediator release by affecting the amount of calcium inside mast cells
• Stem cell factor (SCF) binds to the CKIT receptor on mast cells and tells them to stay alive
o SCF also increases degranulation and production of cytokines
o SCF helps mast cells to adhere to other cells

Mast cells in vascular disease: Part 3
• Mast cells are involved in the formation and growth of aneurysms
• Activated mast cell populations are increased in vessels that rupture
• Chymase, a mast cell mediator, can degrade vessels and increase risk of rupture
• Leukotrienes contribute to aneurysm formation

Kounis Syndrome: Stress (Part 4 of 4)

The phenomenon we now called Kounis Syndrome has previously been called by names like morphologic cardiac reactions, acute carditis and lesions with basic characteristics of rheumatic carditis. It is sometimes still referred to as allergic angina or allergic myocardial infarction/heart attack depending upon the presentation. Allergic angina, which affected patients as microvascular angina, was first noted to progress to allergic heart attack in 1991.

In a small study done at a hospital, 31 patients with anaphylaxis or non-anaphylactic severe allergic reactions had higher serum troponin I than healthy control patients.  Among those 31 patients, those that experienced anaphylaxis had the highest troponin I overall.  This report, and similar findings, indicates that cardiovascular damage may be a frequent component of anaphylaxis, well beyond what is reported.

Mast cell patients often struggle to identify which is the chicken and which is the egg in the many instances of comorbid conditions. There is no such confusion here – mast cell activation causes Kounis Syndrome.  Tryptase increases in peripheral blood during a spontaneous heart attack.  However, when coronary spasm is induced with medications, there is no such increase in tryptase.  In instances where Kounis Syndrome was caused by disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque, mast cells entered the lesion and released mediators prior to the initiation of the coronary event.

Stress is well known to induce mast cell degranulation.  It has been documented in dozens of papers from various disciplines in the last twenty years. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) is a stress hormone that can bind to the CRHR-1 receptor on mast cells, inducing the manufacture of VEGF. At the same time as CRH is released, neurotensin can also be released.  Experimental work has shown that stress induced mast cell degranulation can be compromised if the neurotensin receptor is blocked.

Reactive oxygen species can activate mast cells and induce sensory nerves to release substance P.  Substance P is a potent mast cell degranulator, inducing secretion of histamine and release of VEGF and other inflammatory mediators. These multiple activation pathways triggered by stress result in mast cell mediator release, which can induce coronary hypersensitivity syndromes such as Kounis Syndrome.

References:

Kounis NG, et al. Kounis Syndrome (allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction). In: Angina Pectoris: Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment 2008.

Lippi G, et al. Cardiac troponin I is increased in patients admitted to the emergency department with severe allergic reactions. A case-control study. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 194: 68-69.

Kounis NG, et al. The heart and coronary arteries as primary target in severe allergic reactions: Cardiac troponins and the Kounis hypersensitivity-associated acute coronary syndrome. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 198: 83-84.

Fassio F, et al. Kounis syndrome: a concise review with focus on management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016; 30:7-10.

Kounis Syndrome: Aspects on pathophysiology and management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016.

Kounis NG. Kounis syndrome: an update on epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapeutic management. Clin Chem Lab Med 2016

Kounis NG. Coronary hypersensitivity disorder: the Kounis Syndrome. Clinical Therapeutics 2013, 35 (5): 563-571.

Alevizos M, et al. Stress triggers coronary mast cells leading to cardiac events. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2014; 112 (4): 309-315.

Kounis Syndrome: Treatment (Part 3 of 4)

Kounis Syndrome treatment requires amelioration of both allergic and cardiovascular symptoms.

  • Type I KS patients may only need treatment for allergic aspects without ever progressing to heart attack.
  • Type II and III KS patients are recommended to follow acute coronary event protocol recommended by ACS.
Treatment of allergic aspects of Kounis Syndrome
Drug class Medication Dosage Notes
H1 inverse agonist Diphenhydramine 1-2 mg/kg

50mg IV is a frequent dosage used for mast cell patients experiencing anaphylaxis symptoms

Can cause hypotension and decrease blood flow through coronary artery if given bolus; should be given slowly
H2 antagonist Ranitidine 1 mg/kg
Famotidine 40mg IV is a frequent dosage used for mast cell patients experiencing anaphylaxis symptoms
Corticosteroid Methylprednisolone or other Methylprednisolone 120 mg IV is a frequent dosage used for mast cell patients experiencing anaphylaxis symptoms Corticosteroids are not used for immediate effect, but to prevent biphasic reactions.Corticosteroid treatment in active heart attack patients has not been found to be harmful.Corticosteroids were recommended as early as 2008 by Kounis for several reasons: inhibition of eicosanoid synthesis, decreasing amount of prostaglandins, leukotrienes and thromboxanes that can be made; reduction of inflammation by increasing death receptor CD95 on some cells; synthesis of annexins, proteins that modulate inflammatory cells and their actions

 

 

Fluid support IV fluids Crystalloid normal saline; avoid colloid solution Use with caution to avoid pulmonary edema
Epinephrine Epinephrine IM dose: 0.2-0.5mg every 5-15 minutes Can contribute to myocardial ischemiaCan prolong the QTc interval

Can cause coronary vasospasm and arrhythmias, especially if given IV

Glucagon is an alternative in patients for whom epinephrine is inappropriate

 

 

Treatment of coronary syndrome in Kounis Syndrome
Drug class Medication Dosage Notes
Nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin Sublingual: 0.3-0.4 mg every five minutesIV: 5-10mcg/min, increased by 10 mcg/min every 5 minutes Causes dilation of coronary vesselsIncreases bloodflow to counteract myocardial ischemia
Calcium channel blocker Diltiazem, verapamil Example  ER dosing for verapamil: 80mg orally every eight hours, immediate release Vasodilators
NSAID Aspirin 160-325 mg Prevent clot formation
P2Y12 receptor inhibitor Clopidogrel 75mg daily Taken with aspirin to prevent clot formation; some medical bodies recommend P2Y12 inhibitors with aspirin, while others recommend aspirin alone
Glycosaminoglycan Heparin IV: 5000 IU bolus, followed by infusion of heparin until PTT 1.5-2.5 above normal Type III patientsHeparin may cause allergic reaction, especially in bolus
Opioid Fentanyl 1-2 mcg/kg Drug of choice for pain management, causes small amount of mast cell degranulation, other opiates risk large scale degranulationDoes not affect cardiac output
N/A Stent placement if vessel narrowed by atherosclerosis N/A

 

Notes:

Beta blockers are contraindicated in Kounis Syndrome for the same reason they are contraindicated in mast cell patients – they block the action of epinephrine, which complicates treatment of anaphylaxis.

IV acetaminophen is generally well tolerated by mast cell patients but is not appropriate for Kounis Syndrome. Acetaminophen reduces cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance which can cause severe low blood pressure and aggravate cardiogenic shock.

References:

Kounis NG, et al. Kounis Syndrome (allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction). In: Angina Pectoris: Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment 2008.

Lippi G, et al. Cardiac troponin I is increased in patients admitted to the emergency department with severe allergic reactions. A case-control study. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 194: 68-69.

Kounis NG, et al. The heart and coronary arteries as primary target in severe allergic reactions: Cardiac troponins and the Kounis hypersensitivity-associated acute coronary syndrome. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 198: 83-84.

Fassio F, et al. Kounis syndrome: a concise review with focus on management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016; 30:7-10.

Kounis Syndrome: Aspects on pathophysiology and management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016.

Kounis NG. Kounis syndrome: an update on epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapeutic management. Clin Chem Lab Med 2016

Kounis NG. Coronary hypersensitivity disorder: the Kounis Syndrome. Clinical Therapeutics 2013, 35 (5): 563-571.

Kounis Syndrome: Diagnosis (Part 2 of 4)

Separating the symptoms of the coronary syndrome from those caused by the coincident allergic reaction is difficult.  Acute chest pain is the hallmark symptom of Kounis Syndrome. While other symptoms may be present, such as nausea, fainting, and shortness of breath, they can also be attributed to the allergic reaction.  Likewise, many of the clinical markers for KS may also appear during anaphylaxis, including cold extremities, very fast or very low heart rate, low blood pressure, palpitations, and sweating. Given the significant overlap in presentation with allergic symptoms, KS is not often diagnosed, though it likely affects a larger population than represented in literature.

Troponins and cardiac enzymes like creatinine kinase are important markers for coronary syndrome, but they are not always elevated in KS. Measurement of mast cell mediators like histamine or tryptase is not always accurate due to the short lifetime of these molecules in the body.  Released histamine is only present in blood for about eight minutes, while tryptase has a half-life of about ninety minutes.

An electrocardiogram (EKG) should be performed as part of the diagnostic process.  A number of signs have been seen in KS patients, including atrial or ventricular fibrillation, bigeminal rhythm, heart block, nodal rhythm, sinus bradycardia or tachycardia, ST segment depression or elevation, T-wave flattening or inversion, QRS or QT prolongation, and ventricular ectopics.  Beyond EKG, there are additional markers that may be present with Kounis Syndrome.  A chest x-ray may show an enlarged heart.  Echocardiogram may show dilated cardiac chambers. Angiography of the coronary artery can reveal spasm or thrombosis. In coronary biopsies, infiltration by mast cells and eosinophils may be found.  Elevation of eosinophils in the blood may also be present.

Having no history of coronary artery disease can make diagnosis more complicated for KS Type I patients, who also may have normal troponins and EKG. Dynamic cardiac MRI with gadolinium can show a subendocardial lesion in patients with KS Type I. Newer imaging techniques such as SPECT have been able to identify myocardial ischemia in KS Type I where coronary angiography had showed no irregularities.

References:

Kounis NG, et al. Kounis Syndrome (allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction). In: Angina Pectoris: Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment 2008.

Lippi G, et al. Cardiac troponin I is increased in patients admitted to the emergency department with severe allergic reactions. A case-control study. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 194: 68-69.

Kounis NG, et al. The heart and coronary arteries as primary target in severe allergic reactions: Cardiac troponins and the Kounis hypersensitivity-associated acute coronary syndrome. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 198: 83-84.

Fassio F, et al. Kounis syndrome: a concise review with focus on management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016; 30:7-10.

Kounis Syndrome: Aspects on pathophysiology and management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016.

Kounis NG. Kounis syndrome: an update on epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis and therapeutic management. Clin Chem Lab Med 2016

Kounis NG. Coronary hypersensitivity disorder: the Kounis Syndrome. Clinical Therapeutics 2013, 35 (5): 563-571.

Kounis Syndrome: Subtypes and effects of mast cell mediators (Part 1 of 4)

Kounis Syndrome (KS) is an acute coronary syndrome that arises as a direct result of mast cell degranulation during an allergic or anaphylactic reaction.

KS usually presents as chest pain during an acute allergic or anaphylactic reaction. There are three recognized variants:

Type I: Patient has no predisposing coronary artery disease.

There are two possible outcomes:

  • Coronary artery spasm with no appreciable increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins
  • Coronary artery spasm that evolves to acute myocardiac infarction (heart attack) with accompanying increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins

Type II: Patient has history of coronary artery disease. There are two possible outcomes:

  • Coronary artery spasm with no appreciable increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins
  • Plaque erosion or rupture that evolves to acute myocardiac infarction (heart attack) with accompanying increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins

Type III: Patient has history of coronary artery disease and a drug eluting coronary stent. There are two possible outcomes:

  • Coronary artery spasm with no appreciable increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins
  • Thrombosis that evolves to acute myocardiac infarction (heart attack) with accompanying increase in cardiac enzymes or troponins

A number of mast cell mediators have effects that can cause coronary spasm or thrombosis.  Beyond their direct effects, they also perpetuate an inflammatory cycle that results in activation and infiltration by inflammatory cells

Mediator Effect
Histamine Coronary vasoconstriction, activation of platelets, increase expression of tissue factor
Chymase Activation of interstitial collagenase, gelatinase, stromelysin resulting in plaque rupture, generation of angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor
Cathepsin D Generation of angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor
Leukotrienes (LTC4, LTD4, LTE4) Powerful vasoconstrictor, levels increased during acute unstable angina
Tryptase Activation of interstitial collagenase, gelatinase, stromelysin resulting in plaque rupture
Thromboxane Platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction
PAF Vasoconstriction, aggregation of platelets
Platelets Vasoconstriction, thrombosis

 

References:

Kounis Syndrome (allergic angina and allergic myocardial infarction). Kounis NG, et al. In: Angina Pectoris: Etiology, Pathogenesis and Treatment 2008.

Lippi G, et al. Cardiac troponin I is increased in patients admitted to the emergency department with severe allergic reactions. A case-control study. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 194: 68-69.

Kounis NG, et al. The heart and coronary arteries as primary target in severe allergic reactions: Cardiac troponins and the Kounis hypersensitivity-associated acute coronary syndrome. International Journal of Cardiology 2015, 198: 83-84.

Fassio F, et al. Kounis syndrome: a concise review with focus on management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016; 30:7-10.

Kounis Syndrome: Aspects on pathophysiology and management. European Journal of Internal Medicine 2016.

Symptoms, mediators and mechanisms: A general review (Part 1 of 2)

Skin symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Flushing Histamine (H1), PGD2 Increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels

Blood is closer to the skin and redness is seen

Itching Histamine (H1), leukotrienes LTC4, LTD4, LTE4, PAF Possibly stimulation of itch receptors or interaction with local neurotransmitters
Urticaria Histamine (H1), PAF, heparin, bradykinin Increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

Fluid is trapped inappropriately between layers of skin

Angioedema Histamine (H1), heparin, bradykinin, PAF Increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels

Fluid is trapped inappropriately between layers of tissue

 

Respiratory symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Nasal congestion Histamine (H1), histamine (H2), leukotrienes LTC4, LTD4, LTE4 Increased mucus production

Smooth muscle constriction

Sneezing Histamine (H1), histamine (H2), leukotrienes LTC4, LTD4, LTE4 Increased mucus production

Smooth muscle constriction

Airway constriction/ difficulty breathing Histamine (H1), leukotrienes LTC4, LTD4, LTE4, PAF Increased mucus production

Smooth muscle constriction

 

Cardiovascular symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Low blood pressure Histamine (H1), PAF,  PGD2, bradykinin Decreased force of heart contraction

Increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels

Impact on norepinephrine signaling

Change in heart rate

Presyncope/syncope (fainting) Histamine (H1), histamine (H3), PAF, bradykinin Increased vasodilation and permeability of blood vessels

Decrease in blood pressure

Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters

High blood pressure Chymase,  9a,11b-PGF2, renin, thromboxane A, carboxypeptidase A Impact on renin-angiotensin pathway

Impact on norepinephrine signaling

Tightening and decreased permeability of blood vessels

Tachycardia Histamine (H2), PGD2 Increasing heart rate

Increasing force of heart contraction

Impact on norepinephrine signaling

Arrhythmias Chymase, PAF, renin Impact on renin-angiotensin pathway

Impact on norepinephrine signaling

 

Gastrointestinal symptoms    
Symptom Mediators Mechanism
Diarrhea Histamine (H1), histamine (H2), bradykinin, serotonin Smooth muscle constriction

Increased gastric acid secretion

Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters

Gas Histamine (H1), histamine (H2), bradykinin Smooth muscle constriction

Increased gastric acid secretion

Abdominal pain Histamine (H1), histamine (H2), bradykinin, serotonin Smooth muscle constriction

Increased gastric acid secretion

Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters

Nausea/vomiting Histamine (H3), serotonin Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters
Constipation Histamine (H2), histamine (H3), serotonin (low) Dysfunctional release of neurotransmitters