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October 2015

Reading list: Papers to better understand mast cells and mast cell disease (Part 4)

Mast cells and eosinophils

  • Elishmereni M, Alenius HT, Bradding P, Mizrahi S, Shikotra A, Minai-Fleminger Y, et al. Physical interactions between mast cells and eosinophils: a novel mechanism enhancing eosinophil survival in vitro. Allergy 2011;66:376–385.
  • Elishmereni M, Bachelet I, Nissim Ben Efraim AH, Mankuta D, Levi-Schaffer F. Interacting mast cells and eosinophils acquire an enhanced activation state in vitro. Allergy 2013; 68: 171–179.
  • Minai-Fleminger Y, Elishmereni M, Vita F, Soranzo MR, Mankuta D, Zabucchi G et al. Ultrastructural evidence for human mast cell-eosinophil interactions in vitro. Cell Tissue Res 2010; 341: 405–415.
  • Puxeddu I, Ribatti D, Crivellato E, Levi- Schaffer F. Mast cells and eosinophils: a novel link between inflammation and angiogenesis in allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 531–536.

Allergic to infections

  • Abraham S. N, St John A. L. (2010). Mast cell-orchestrated immunity to pathogens. Rev. Immunol. 10440–452.
  • Dietrich N., Rohde M., Geffers R., Kroger A., Hauser H., Weiss S., Gekara N. O. (2010). Mast cells elicit proinflammatory but not type I interferon responses upon activation of TLRs by bacteria. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.1078748–8753
  • Fehrenbach K., Port F., Grochowy G., Kalis C., Bessler W., Galanos C., Krystal G., Freudenberg M., Huber M. (2007). Stimulation of mast cells via FcvarepsilonR1 and TLR2: the type of ligand determines the outcome. Immunol.442087–2094.
  • Gilfillan A. M., Tkaczyk C. (2006). Integrated signalling pathways for mast-cell activation. Rev. Immunol.6218–230.
  • McCurdy,J.D., Olynych,T.J., Maher, L. H.,and Marshall, J.S.(2003). Cutting edge: distinct Toll-like receptor2 activators selectively induce different classes of mediator production from human mast cells. Immunol. 170, 1625–1629.
  • Medina-Tamayo, J., Ibarra-Sanchez, A., Padilla-Trejo,A., and Gonzalez- Espinosa, C. (2011). IgE-dependent sensitization increases responsiveness to LPS but does not modify development of endotoxin tolerance in mast cells. Res. 60, 19–27.
  • Qiao,H., Andrade,M.V., Lisboa,F. A., Morgan,K., and Beaven, M. A. (2006).FcepsilonR1 and toll-like receptors mediate synergistic signals to markedly augment production of inflammatory cytokines in murine mast cells.Blood 107, 610–618.
  • Sandig H, Bulfone-Paus S. TLR signaling in mast cells: common and unique features. Front Immunol. 2012; 3: 185.
  • Varadaradjalou, S., Feger, F., Thieblemont, N., Hamouda, N.B., Pleau, J. M., Dy,M., and Arock, M. (2003). Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 differentially activate human mast cells. J. Immunol. 33, 899–906.
  • Yoshioka,M., Fukuishi,N., Iriguchi,S., Ohsaki, K., Yamanobe,H., Inukai, A., Kurihara,D., Imajo,N., Yasui, Y., Matsui, N., Tsujita, T., Ishii, A., Seya,T., Takahama,M., and Akagi, M. (2007). Lipoteichoicacid down- regulates FcepsilonRI expressionon human mast cells through Toll-like receptor2. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 120, 452–461.

Interactions with B and T cells

  • Brill, A., Baram, D., Sela, U., Salamon, P., Mekori, Y. A., and Hershkoviz, R. Induction of mast cell interactions with blood vessel wall components by direct contact with intact T cells or T cell membranes in vitro. Exp. Allergy 2004; 34, 1725–1731.
  • Gri, Giorgia, et al. Mast cell: an emerging partner in immune interaction. Front. Immunol., 25 May 2012.

Mast cells in wound healing

  • Douaiher, Jeffrey, et al. Development of Mast Cells and Importance of Their Tryptase and Chymase Serine Proteases in Inflammation and Wound Healing Advances in Immunology, Volume 122 (2014): Chapter 6.
  • Westerberg CM, et al. Differentiation of mast cell subpopulations from mouse embryonic stem cells. Journal of Immunological Methods 382 (2012) 160–166.

Exercise

  • Baek HS, et al. Leptin and urinary leukotriene E4and 9α,11β-prostaglandin F2 release after exercise challenge. Volume 111, Issue 2, August 2013, Pages 112–117
  • Graham P, Kahlson G, Rosengren E. Histamine formation in physical exercise, anoxia and under the influence of adrenaline and related substances. Physiol., 172, 174—188 (1964).
  • Hahn AlG., et al. Histamine reactivity during refractory period after exercise induced asthma. Thorax 1984; 39: 919-923.
  • McNeill RS, Nairn JR, Millar JS, Ingram CG.Exercise-induced asthma. Q J Med 1966; 35: 55-67.
  • Niijima-Yaoita F, et al. Roles of histamine in exercise-induced fatigue: favouring endurance and protecting against exhaustion. Biol Pharm Bull 2012; 35; 91-97.
  • Schoeffel, Robin E., et al. Multiple exercise and histamine challenge in asthmatic patients. Thorax, 1980, 35, 164-170.
  • Teal S. Hallstrand, Mark W. Moody, Mark M. Wurfel, Lawrence B. Schwartz, William R. Henderson, Jr., and Moira L. Aitken. Inflammatory Basis of Exercise-induced Bronchoconstriction. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 172, No. 6 (2005), pp. 679-686.

Circadian rhythm of mast cells

  • Baumann, A., Gonnenwein, S., Bischoff, S.C., Sherman, H., Chapnik, N., Froy, O.,Lorentz, A., 2013. The circadian clock is functional in eosinophils and mast cells. Immunology 4, 465–474.
  • Baumanna A, et al. IgE-dependent activation of human mast cells and fMLP-mediatedactivation of human eosinophils is controlled by the circadian clock. Molecular Immunology 64 (2015) 76–81.
  • Burioka, N., Fukuoka, Y., Koyanagi, S., Miyata, M., Takata, M., Chikumi, H., Takane, H.,Watanabe, M., Endo, M., Sako, T., Suyama, H., Ohdo, S., Shimizu, E., 2010. Asthma: chronopharmacotherapy and the molecular clock. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 9–10,946–955.
  • Cermakian, N., Lange, T., Golombek, D., Sarkar, D., Nakao, A., Shibata, S., Mazzoccoli, G., 2013. Crosstalk between the circadian clock circuitry and the immune system.Chronobiol. Int. 7, 870–888.
  • Nakamura Y, et al. Circadian regulation of allergic reactions by the mast cell clock in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol 133 (2014) 568-575.
  • Silver, A.C., Arjona, A., Hughes, M.E., Nitabach, M.N., Fikrig, E., 2012. Circadian expres-sion of clock genes in mouse macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. Immun. 3, 407–413.
  • Smolensky, M.H., Lemmer, B., Reinberg, A.E., 2007. Chronobiology and chronother-apy of allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 9–10,852–882.

Microbial effects on mast cell behavior

  • Choi HW, Abraham SN. Mast cell mediator responses and their suppression by pathogenic and commensal microorganisms. Molecular Immunology 63 (2015) 74–79.
  • Choi, H.W., Brooking-Dixon, R., Neupane, S., Lee, C.-J., Miao, E.A., Staats, H.F., Abraham, S.N., 2013. Salmonella typhimurium impedes innate immunity with a mast-cell-suppressing protein tyrosine phosphatase, SptP. Immunity 39,1108–1120.
  • Cornelis, G.R., 2002. Yersinia type III secretion: send in the effectors. Cell Biol. 158, 401–408.
  • Forsythe, P., Wang, B., Khambati, I., Kunze, W.A., 2012. Systemic effects of ingested Lactobacillus rhamnosus: inhibition of mast cell membrane potassium (IKCa)current and degranulation. PLoS One 7, e41234.
  • Harata, G., He, F., Takahashi, K., Hosono, A., Kawase, M., Kubota, A., Hiramatsu, M.,Kaminogawa, S., 2010. Bifidobacterium suppresses IgE-mediated degranulationof rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells. Microbiol. Immunol. 54, 54–57.
  • Magerl, M., Lammel, V., Siebenhaar, F., Zuberbier, T., Metz, M., Maurer, M., 2008. Non-pathogenic commensal Escherichia coli bacteria can inhibit degranulation of mast cells. Exp. Dermatol. 17, 427–435.
  • Melendez, A.J., Harnett, M.M., Pushparaj, P.N., Wong, W.S., Tay, H.K., McSharry, C.P.,Harnett, W., 2007. Inhibition of Fc epsilon RI-mediated mast cell responses by ES-62, a product of parasitic filarial nematodes. Nat. Med. 13, 1375–1381.
  • Niide, O., Suzuki, Y., Yoshimaru, T., Inoue, T., Takayama, T., Ra, C., 2006. Fungal metabolite gliotoxin blocks mast cell activation by a calcium- and superoxide-dependent mechanism: implications for immunosuppressive activities. Clin.Immunol. 118, 108–116.
  • Oksaharju, A., Kankainen, M., Kekkonen, R.A., Lindstedt, K.A., Kovanen, P.T., Korpela,R., Miettinen, M., 2011. Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus downregulates FCER1and HRH4 expression in human mast cells. World J. Gastroenterol. 17, 750–759.
  • Wesolowski, J., Paumet, F., 2011. The impact of bacterial infection on mast celldegranulation. Immunol. Res. 51, 215–226.

Reading list: Papers to better understand mast cells and mast cell disease

Prostaglandin E2

  • Legler DF, et al. Prostaglandin E2 at new glance: Novel insights in functional diversity offer therapeutic chances. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology 42 (2010) 198–201.
  • Ricciotti E, FitzGerald GA. Prostaglandins and Inflammation.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2011; 31: 986-1000.
  • Torres R, Picado C, de Mora F. The PGE2–EP2–mast cell axis: An antiasthma mechanism. Molecular Immunology 63 (2015) 61–68

Prostaglandin D2

  • Bochenek G et al. Plasma 9a,11b-PGF2, a PGD2 metabolite, as a sensitive marker of mast cell activation by allergen in bronchial asthma. Thorax 2004; 59: 459–464.
  • Dishy V, et al. Effects of Aspirin When Added to the Prostaglandin D2 Receptor Antagonist Laropiprant on Niacin-Induced Flushing Symptoms. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2009; 49: 416-422
  • Matsuoka T, Hirata M, Tanaka H, Takahashi Y, Murata T, Kabashima K, Sugimoto Y, Kobayashi T, Ushikubi F, Aze Y, Eguchi N, Urade Y, Yoshida N, Kimura K, Mizoguchi A, Honda Y, Nagai H, Narumiya S. Prostaglandin D2 as a mediator of allergic asthma. Science. 2000;287: 2013–2017.
  • Ricciotti E, FitzGerald GA. Prostaglandins and Inflammation.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2011; 31: 986-1000.

Platelet activating factor

  • Kajiwara N, Sasaki T, Bradding P, Cruse G, Sagara H, Ohmori K, Saito H, Ra C, Okayama Y. Activation of human mast cells through the platelet-activating factor receptor. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010 May; 125(5): 1137-1145.
  • Kasperska-Zajac, Z. Brzoza, and B. Rogala. Platelet Activating Factor as a Mediator and Therapeutic Approach in Bronchial Asthma. Inflammation, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2008.
  • Vadas P, et al. Platelet-Activating Factor, PAF Acetylhydrolase, and Severe Anaphylaxis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:28-35.
  • Vadas P, Gold M, Liss G, Smith C, Yeung J, Perelman B. PAF acetylhydrolase predisposes to fatal anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111: S206-S206.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate

  • Allende ML, Proia RL. Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors and the development of the vascular system. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2002; 1582: 222–227.
  • Olivera A, Eisner C, Kitamura Y, et al. Sphingosine kinase 1 and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 are vital to recovery from anaphylactic shock. J Clin Invest. 2010.
  • Olivera A, Rivera J. An emerging role for the lipid mediator sphingosine-1-phosphate in mast cell effector function and allergic disease. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2011; 716: 123–142.

Leptin

  • Altintas et al. Leptin deficiency-induced obesity affects the density of mast cells in abdominal fat depots and lymph nodes in mice. Lipids in Health and Disease 2012, 11:21
  • Baatar D, Patel K, Taub DD. The effects of ghrelin on inflammation and the immune system. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2011 Jun 20; 340(1): 44-58.
  • Fernández-Riejos P, et al. Role of Leptin in the Activation of Immune Cells. Mediators of Inflammation, Volume 2010 (2010), Article ID 568343, 8 pages.
  • Hirayama T, et al. Ghrelin and obestatin promote the allergic action in rat peritoneal mast cells as basic secretagogues. Peptides. 2010 Nov;31(11):2109-13
  • Klok MD, Jakobsdottir S, Drent ML. The role of leptin and ghrelin in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans: a review. Obes Rev. 2007 Jan; 8(1): 21-34.
  • Taildeman J, et al. Human mast cells express leptin and leptin receptors. Histochem Cell Biol. 2009 Jun; 131(6): 703-11.

Heparin and bradykinin

  • Brunnée T, et al. Mast cell derived heparin activates the contact system: a link to kinin generation in allergic reactions. Clin Exp Allergy. 1997 Jun;27(6):653-63.
  • Kaplan AP,Ghebrehiwet B. The plasma bradykinin-forming pathways and its interrelationships with complement. Mol Immunol. 2010 Aug; 47(13):2161-9
  • Oschatz C, et al. Mast cells increase vascular permeability by heparin-initiated bradykinin formation in vivo. Immunity. 2011 Feb 25; 34(2):258-68.

Mast cell mutations

  • Akin C, et al.. A novel form of mastocytosis associated with a transmembrane c- Kit mutation and response to imatinib. Blood, 103 (2004), pp. 3222–3225
  • Chan EC, et al. Mastocytosis associated with a rare germline KIT K509I mutation displays a well-differentiated mast cell phenotype. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 134 (2014), pp. 178–187
  • Damaj, G., Joris, M., Chandersris, O., Hanssens, K., Soucie, E., Canioni, D., et al., 2014.ASXL1 but not TET2 Mutations Adversely Impact Overall Survival of PatientsSuffering Systemic Mastocytosis with Associated Clonal Hematologic Non-Mast-Cell Diseases. PLoS ONE 9 (1), e85362.
  • de Melo Campos, J.A. Machado-Neto, A.S.S. Duarte, R. Scopim-Ribeiro, F.F. de Carvalho Barra, J.Vassallo,et al.Familial mastocytosis: identification of KIT K509I mutation and its in vitro sensitivity to imatinib, dasatinib and PK412. Blood, 122 (2013), p. 5267
  • Escribano, R. Nunez-Lopez, M. Jara, A. Garcia-Montero, A. Prados, C. Teodosio,et al. Indolent systemic mastocytosis with germline D816 V somatic c-kit mutation evolving to an acute myeloid leukemia. J Allery Clin Immunol, 117 (Suppl.) (2006), p. S125
  • Hanssens K., et al. SRSF2-P95 Hotspot Mutation is Highly Associated with Advanced Forms of Mastocytosis and Mutations in Epigenetic Regulator Genes. Haematologica 2013 [Epub ahead of print.]
  • Hartmann, E. Wardelmann, Y. Ma, S. Merkelbach-Bruse, L.M. Preussenr, C. Woolery,et al. Novel germline mutation of KIT associated with familial gastrointestinal stromal tumors and mastocytosis. Gastroenterology, 129 (2005), pp. 1042–1046
  • Molderings GJ et al. Familial occurrence of systemic mast cell activation disease. PLoS One, 8 (2013), p. e76241
  • Molderings GJ et al. The genetic basis of mast cell activation disease – looking through a glass darkly. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology 2014.
  • Schwaab, J., Schnittger, S., Sotlar, K., Walz, C., Fabarius, A., Pfirrmann, M., et al., 2013.Comprehensive mutational profiling in advanced systemic mastocytosis. Blood122 (October (14)), 2460–2466.
  • Schwaab, Juliana, et al. Comprehensive mutational profiling in advanced systemic mastocytosis. Blood 2013, 122 (14): 2460-2466.
  • Sotlar, Karl, et al. Systemic mastocytosis associated with chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis. J Mol Diagn Jan 2008; 10(1): 58-66.
  • Soucie, E., Brenet, F., Dubreuil, P. Molecular basis of mast cell disease. Molecular Immunology 63 (2015) 55-60.
  • Soucie, E., Hanssens, K., Mercher, T., Georgin-Lavialle, S., Damaj, G., Livideanu, C.,et al., 2012. In aggressive forms of mastocytosis. TET2 loss cooperates with c-KITD816V to transform mast cells. Blood 2012; 24: 4846–4849.
  • Speight RA, et al. Rare germline mutation of KIT with imatinib-resistant multiple GI stromal tumors and mastocytosis. J Clin Oncol, 31 (2013), pp. e245–e247
  • Zhang LY, et al. A novel K5091 mutation of KIT identified in familial mastocytosis – in vitro and in vivo responsiveness to imatinib therapy. Leukemia Res, 30 (2006), pp. 373–378

Complement C3a

  • Ali H. Regulation of human mast cell and basophil function by anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a. Immunology Letters 128 (2010) 36–45.
  • Erdei et al. Regulation of mast cell activation by complement-derived peptides. Immunology Letters 92 (2004) 39–42.
  • Theoharides TC, et al. Mast cells and inflammation. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1822 (2012) 21–33.
  • Woolhiser MR, et al. Activation of human mast cells by aggregated IgG through FcγRI: additive effects of C3a, Clin. Immunol. 110 (2004) 172–180.

Role of mast cells in  vaginal pain

  • Graziottin A. Mast cells and their role in sexual pain disorders in: Goldstein A. Pukall C. Goldstein I. (Eds), Female Sexual Pain Disorders: Evaluation and Management, Blackwell Publishing 2009, p. 176-179.
  • Harlow BL, et al. Allergic Reactions and Risk of Vulvodynia.Ann Epidemiol. Nov 2009; 19(11): 771–777.
  • Reed BD, et al. Relationship Between Vulvodynia and Chronic Comorbid Pain Conditions. Obstet Gynecol. Jul 2012; 120(1): 145–151.

Regulation of mast cells by IgE and stem cell factor (SCF)

  • Cruse, G., Bradding, P. Mast cells in airway dieases and institial lung disease. Eur J Pharmacol (2015).
  • Gilfillian, A.M., Beaven, M.A. Regulation of mast cell responses in health and disease. Crit Rev Immunol 2011, 31, 475-529.
  • River, K., Gilfillian, A.M. Molecular regulation of mast cell activation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006, 117, 1214-1225.

Reading list: Papers to better understand mast cells and mast cell disease (continued)

Bone aspects of mast cell disease

  • Barete S, Assous N, de Gennes C, Granpeix C, Feger F, Palmerini F, et al. Systemic mastocytosis and bone involvement in a cohort of 75 patients. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:1838–41.
  • Biosse-Duplan M, Baroukh B, Dy M, de Vernejoul MC, Saffar JL. Histamine promotes osteoclastogenesis through the differential expression of histamine receptors on osteoclasts and osteoblasts.Am J Pathol. 2009;174(4):1426-1434.
  • Brumsen C, Papapoulos SE, Lentjes EG, Kluin PM, Hamdy NA. A potential role for the mast cell in the pathogenesis of idiopathic osteoporosis in men. Bone. 2002 Nov;31(5):556-61.
  • Dobigny C, Saffar JL. H1 and H2 histamine receptors modulate osteoclastic resorption by different pathways: evidence obtained by using receptor antagonists in a rat synchronized resorption model. J Cell Physiol. 1997 Oct;173(1):10-8.
  • Escribano L, Alvarez-Twose I, Sanchez-Munoz L, Garcia-Montero A, Nunez R, Almeida J et al. Prognosis in adult indolent systemic mastocytosis: a long-term study of the Spanish network on mastocytosis in a series of 145 patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;124:514–521.
  • Kushnir-Sukhov NM, Brittain E, Reynolds JC, Akin C, Metcalfe DD. Elevated tryptase levels are associated with greater bone density in a cohort of patients with mastocytosis. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2006;139(3):265-70. Epub 2006 Jan 30.
  • Matito A, Morgado JM, Álvarez-Twose I, Laura Sánchez-Muñoz, Pedreira CE, et al. (2013) Serum Tryptase Monitoring in Indolent Systemic Mastocytosis: Association with Disease Features and Patient Outcome. PLoS ONE 8(10): e76116. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076116
  • Nicolas Guillaume, et al. Bone Complications of Mastocytosis: A Link between Clinical and Biological Characteristics. The American Journal of Medicine (2013) 126, 75.e1-75.e7
  • Pardinini A. How I treat patients with indolent and smoldering mastocytosis (rare conditions but difficult to manage). April 18, 2013; Blood: 121 (16.)
  • Reinacher-Schick, S. Petrasch, B.J. Longley, C. Teschendorf, U. Graeven, W. Schmiegel. c-Kit mutation and osteopetrosis-like osteopathy in a patient with systemic mast cell disease. Ann Hematol, 77 (1998), pp. 131–134
  • Rossini M, et al. Bone mineral density, bone turnover markers and fractures in patients with indolent systemic mastocytosis. Bone 49 (2011) 880–885.
  • Sánchez-Muñoz L, et al. Evaluation of the WHO criteria for the classification of patients with mastocytosis. Modern Pathology (2011) 24, 1157–1168.
  • Theoharides TC, Boucher W, Spear K. Serum interleukin-6 reflects disease severity and osteoporosis in mastocytosis patients. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2002;128: 344–50.
  • Valent P, Sperr WR and Akin C. How I treat patients with advanced systemic mastocytosis. December 23, 2010; Blood: 116 (26.)
  • van der Veer, W. van der Goot, J. G. R. de Monchy, H. C. Kluin-Nelemans, J. J. van Doormaal. High prevalence of fractures and osteoporosis in patients with indolent systemic mastocytosis. Allergy 67 (2012) 431–438.

Mast cells in respiratory disease

  • Anand P, et al. Mast cells: an expanding pathophysiological role from allergy to other disorders. Naunyn-Schiedeberg’s Arch. Pharmacol. 2012 May.

Mast cells in renal and urinary disease

  • Blank U., et al. Mast cells and inflammatory kidney disease. Immunol Rev 2007, 217: 79-95.
  • Holdsworth SR, Summers SA.  Role of mast cells in progressive renal disease.  J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2008 Dec; 19(12):2254-2261.
  • Kempuraj D, Theoharides TC, et al.  Increased numbers of activated mast cells in endometrial lesions positive for corticotropin-releasing hormone and urocortin.  Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2004; 52:267-275.
  • Madjene LC., et al. Mast cells in renal inflammation and fibrosis: Lessons learnt from animal studies. Molecular Immunology 63 (2015) 86-93.
  • Sant, Grannum R., Kempuraj , Duraisamy, Marchand , James E., Theoharides, Theoharis C. The mast cell in interstitial cystitis: role in pathophysiology and pathogenesis.  2007.  Urology 69 (Suppl 4A): 34-40.
  • Summers, SA., et al. Mast cell activation and degranulation promotes renal fibrosis in experimental unilateral ureteric obstruction. Kidney Int 2012.

Mast cells in cardiovascular disease

  • Afrin, Lawrence B. Presentation, diagnosis and management of mast cell activation syndrome.  2013.  Mast cells.
  • Biteker M.  Current understanding of Kounis Syndrome.  Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2010 Sep;6(5):777-88.
  • Bot I, et al. Mast cells: Pivotal players in cardiovascular diseases. Current Cardiology Reviews, 2008, 4, 170-178.
  • Glowacki J, Mulliken JB. Mast cells in hemangioma and vascular malformations. Pediatrics 1982; 70(1):48-51.
  • Guo, T., Chen,W. Q., Zhang, C., Zhao, Y. X., & Zhang, Y. (2009). Chymase activity is closely related with plaque vulnerability in a hamster model of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 207, 59–67.
  • Kennedy S, et al. Mast cells and vascular diseases. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 138 (2013) 53–65.
  • Kolck UW, Alfter K, Homann J, von Kügelgen I, Molderings GJ. Cardiac mast cells: implications for heart failure. JACC 2007 Mar 13; 49(10):1106-1108.
  • Kounis, N. G., Mazarakis, A., Tsigkas, G., Giannopoulos, S., & Goudevenos, J. (2011). Kounis syndrome: a new twist on an old
  • Lappalainen,H., Laine, P., Pentikäinen,M. O., Sajantila,A.,& Kovanen, P. T. (2004).Mast cells in neovascularized human coronary plaques store and secrete basic fibroblast growth factor, a potent angiogenic mediator. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24, 1880–1885.
  • Meléndez, G. C., Li, J., Law, B. A., Janicki, J. S., Supowit, S. C., & Levick, S. P. (2011). Substance P induces adverse myocardial remodelling via a mechanism involving cardiac mast cells. Cardiovasc Res 92, 420–429.
  • Molderings GJ, Brettner S, Homann J, Afrin LB. Mast cell activation disease: a concise practical guide for diagnostic workup and therapeutic options. J. Hematol. Oncol.2011; 4:10-17.
  • Ramalho, L. S., Oliveira, L. F., Cavellani, C. L., Ferraz, M. L., de Oliveira, F. A., Miranda Corrêa, R. R., et al. (2012). Role of mast cell chymase and tryptase in the progression of atherosclerosis: study in 44 autopsied cases. Ann Diagn Pathol 17, 28–31.
  • Ribatti D, Crivellato E. Mast cells, angiogenesis, and tumour growth. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2012 Jan; 1822(1): 2-8.

Miscellaneous considerations for studying mast cell disease

  • Butterfield JH, Li C-Y. Bone marrow biopsies for the diagnosis of systemic mastocytosis: is one biopsy sufficient? Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2004; 121:264-267.
  • Sur R. Cavender D. Malaviya R. Different approaches to study mast cell functions. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2007 May; 7(5):555-567.

Role of mast cells in pain

  • Barbara G, et al. Mast Cell-Dependent Excitation of Visceral-Nociceptive Sensory Neurons in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Gastroenterology 2007; 132 (1): 26–37.
  • Ferjan, F. Erjavec. Changes in histamine and serotonin secretion from rat peritoneal mast cells caused by antidepressants. Inflammation Research 1996, Volume 45, Issue 3, pp 141-144.
  • Gao, G., Ouyang , Kaufman MP, Yu S. ERK1/2 signaling pathway in mast cell activation-induced sensitization of esophageal nodose C-fiber neurons. Dis. Esophagus 2011; 24, 194–203.
  • Heron, Anne, Dubayle, David. 2013. A focus on mast cells and pain. Journal of Neuroimmunology 264 (2013) 1–7.
  • Parada, C.A., Tambeli, C.H., Cunha, F.Q., Ferreira, S.H., 2001. The major role of peripheral release of histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in formalin-induced nociception. Neuroscience 102, 937–944.
  • Theoharides, T.C., Donelan, J., Kandere-Grzybowska, K., Konstantinidou, A. The role of mast cells in migraine pathophysiology. Brain Res. Rev.2005; 49, 65–76.
  • Theoharides, T.C., Kempuraj, D., Sant, G.R. Mast cell involvement in interstitial cystitis: a review of human and experimental evidence. Urology 2001; 57, 47–55.
  • Wang B. et al. Activated mast cells in proximity to colonic nerves correlate with abdominal pain in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology, vol. 126, no. 3, pp. 693–702, 2004.
  • Wang B. et al. Mast cell-dependent excitation of visceral-nociceptive sensory neurons in irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology, vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 26–37, 2007.
  • Xinning Li, MD; Keith Kenter, MD; Ashley Newman, BS; Stephen O’Brien, MD, MBA. Allergy/ Hypersensitivity Reactions as a Predisposing Factor to Complex Regional Pain Syndrome I in Orthopedic Patients. Orthopedics 2014: Volume 37 · Issue 3: e286-e291

Mast cells in metabolic syndrome: hypertension, obesity and atherosclerosis

  • Chinellato I, Piazza M, Sandri M, Peroni DG, Cardinale F, Piacentini GL, Boner AL.  Serum vitamin D levels and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in children with asthma.  Eur Respir J. 2011; 37(6): 1366-70.
  • Melander A, Owman C, Sundler F.  TSH-induced appearance and stimulation of amine-containing mast cells in the mouse thyroid.  Endocrinology 1971; 89: 528–533.

 

  • Siebler T, Robson H, Bromley M, Stevens DA, Shalet SM, Williams GR.  Thyroid status affects number and localization of thyroid hormone receptor expressing mast cells in bone marrow.  2002; 30(1): 259-66.
  • Zhang J, Shi GP. Mast cells and metabolic syndrome. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2012 Jan, 822(1):14-20.

Effects of sex hormons and pregnancy on mast cells

  • Jensen F, Woudwyk M, Teles A, Woidacki K, Taran F, Costa S et al. (2010). Estradiol and progesterone regulate the migration of mast cells from the periphery to the uterus and induce their maturation and degranulation. PLoS One2010; 5: e14409.
  • Matito, A., et al. Clinical Impact of Pregnancy in Mastocytosis: A Study of the Spanish Network on Mastocytosis (REMA) in 45 Cases.  Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2011;156:104-111.
  • Metcalfe, D. D., and Akin, C. (2001). Mastocytosis: molecular mechanisms and clinical disease heterogeneity.  Res. 25, 577–582.
  • Woidacki, K., Jensen, F., Metz, Zenclussen, A. (2013). Mast cells as novel mediators of reproductive processes.  Immunol.10.
  • Woidacki, K., Popovic, M., Metz, M., Schumacher, A., Linzke, N., Teles, A., et al. (2013). Mast cells rescue implantation defects caused by c-kit deficiency. Cell Death Dis.4, e462.

H1 antihistamines

  • Church, Diana S., Church, Martin K. Pharmacology of antihistamines. World Allergy Organization Journal 2011, 4 (Suppl 3): S22-S27.
  • Leurs, R., et al. H1-antihistamines: inverse agonism, anti-inflammatory actions and cardiac effects. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 32 (2002): 489-498.

Natural mast cell stabilizers

  • Bheekha-Escura, Roy, et al. Pharmacologic regulation of histamine release by the human recombinant histamine-releasing factor. May 1999; 103(5): 937-943.
  • Finn, DF, Walsh, JJ. Twenty-first century mast cell stabilizers. J Pharmacol 2013 Sep; 170(1): 23-37.
  • Hong J, et al. Suppression of the antigen-stimulated RBL-2H3 mast cell activation by Artekeiskeanol A. Planta Med 2009 Nov; 75(14): 1494-1498.
  • Kim DY, et al. Emodin attenuates A23187-induced mast cell degranulation and tumor necrosis factor-a secretion through protein kinase C and IkB kinase 2 signaling. Eur J Pharmacol 2014 Jan 15; 723: 501-506.
  • Kim M, et al. Gnetin H isolated from Paeonia anomala inhibits FceRI-mediated mast cell signaling and degranulation. J Ethnopharmacol 2014 Jul 3; 154(3): 798-806.
  • Kishiro S, et al. Selinidin suppresses IgE-mediated mast cell activation by inhibiting multiple steps of Fc epsilonRI signaling. Biol Pharm Bull 2008 Mar; 31(3): 442-448.
  • Kritas SK, et al. Luteolin inhibits mast cell-mediated allergic inflammation. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 2013 Oct-Dec; 27(4): 955-959.
  • Lee, YS, et al. Homoisoflavonone prevents mast cell activation and allergic responses by inhibition of Syk signaling pathway. Allergy 2014; 69: 453-462.
  • Lu Y, et al. Emodin, a naturally occurring anthraquinone derivative, suppresses IgE-mediated anaphylactic reaction and mast cell activation. Biochem Pharmacol 2011 Dec 1; 82(11): 1700-1708.
  • Moon PD, et al. Use of scopoletin to inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines through inhibition of the IkappaB/NF-kappaB signal cascade in the human mast cell line HMC-1. Eur J Pharmacol 2007 Jan 26; 555(2-3): 218-225.
  • Park HH, et al. Flavonoids inhibit histamine release and expression of proinflammatory cytokines in mast cells. Arch Pharm Res. 2008 Oct; 31(10): 1303-11.
  • Persia FA, et al. Hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein of olive oil inhibit mast cell degranulation induced by immune and non-immune pathways.  Phytomedicine. 2014 Sept 25; 21(11): 1400-1405.
  • Son JK, et al. Ginkgetin, a biflavone from Ginkgo biloba leaves, inhibits cyclooxygenases-2 and 5-lipoxygenase in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2005 Dec; 28(12): 2181-4.
  • Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Iliopoulou BP. Mast cells, T cells, and inhibition by luteolin: implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of multiple sclerosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007; 601: 423-30.
  • Weng Z., et al. Quercetin is more effective than cromolyn in blocking human mast cell cytokine release and inhibits contact dermatitis and photosensitivity inhumans. PLoS One. 2012; 7(3): e33805.
  • Yang B, et al. Polydatin attenuated food allergy via store-operated calcium channels in mast cell. World J Gastroenterol 2013 Jul 7; 19(25): 3980-3989.
  • Yuan M, et al. Polydatin (PD) inhibits IgE-mediated passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in mice by stabilizing mast cells through modulating Ca2+ mobilization. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012 Nov 1; 264(3): 462-469.
  • Zhang, T., et al. Mast cell stabilisers. Eur J Pharmacol (2015).

Reading list: Papers to better understand mast cells and mast cell disease

I get asked semi-regularly for literature recommendations.  This post (and the other posts marked “Reading list”) lists papers I have found helpful in understanding mast cell disease and the roles of mast cells in other diseases.

As a general rule of thumb, read the guidance documents first.  They give comprehensive overviews that include symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, statistics and so on.  Please keep in mind that at this time, there are multiple sets of diagnostic criteria for MCAS.  I have included papers here that represent the competing schools of thought on MCAS.

Enjoy!

 

Guidance documents: Overviews of mast cell diseases

  • Afrin, Lawrence B. Presentation, Diagnosis and Management of Mast Cell Activation Syndrome. 2013. Mast Cells.
  • Akin C, Valent P, Metcalfe D. Mast cell activation syndrome: Proposed diagnostic criteria. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2010: 126 (6): 1099–1104.e4
  • Bodemer C., Hermine O., Palmérini F., Yang Y., Grandpeix-Guyodo C., Leventhal PS., Hadj-Rabia S., Nasca L., Georgin-Lavialle S., Cohen-Akenine A., Launay JM., Barete S., Feger F., Arock M., Catteau B., Sans B., Stalder JF., Skowron F., Thomas L., Lorette G.Plantin P, Bordigoni P, Lortholary O, de Prost Y, Moussy A, Sobol H, Dubreuil P. Pediatric mastocytosis is a colonal disease associated with D816V and other activating C-KIT mutations. J Invest Dermatol 2010; 130:804–815.
  • Brockow, C. Jofer, H. Behrendt and J. Ring. Anaphylaxis in patients with mastocytosis: a study on history, clinical features and risk factors in 120 patients. Allergy 2008, 63 ( 2):, 226–232.
  • Cardet JC, Castells M, Hamilton MJ. Immunology and Clinical Manifestations of Non-Clonal Mast Cell Activation Syndrome. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. Feb 2013; 13(1): 10–18.
  • Carter et al. Assessment of clinical findings, tryptase levels, and bone marrow histopathology in the management of pediatric mastocytosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2015.
  • Carter MC, Escribano L, Hartmann K, Lieberman P, Nedoszytko B, Orfao A, Schwartz LB, Sotlar K, Valent P, Akin C, Arock M, Brockow K, Butterfield JH, Sperr WR, Triggiani M, Valenta R, Horny HP, Metcalfe DD. Definitions, Criteria and Global Classification of Mast Cell Disorders with Special Reference to Mast Cell Activation Syndromes: A Consensus Proposal. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2012;157:215–225.
  • Frieri, Marianne, et al. Pediatric mastocytosis: A review of the literature. Pediatr Allergy Immunol Pulmonol. Dec 1, 2013; 26(4): 175-180.
  • Georgin-Lavialle, Sophie, et al.  Mast cell leukemia.  Blood 2013;10 (11).
  • Gülen, H. Hägglund, B. Dahlén and G. Nilsson. High prevalence of anaphylaxis in patients with systemic mastocytosis – a single-centre experience. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, Volume 44, Issue 1, pages 121–129, January 2014.
  • Haenisch B, Nothen M, Molderings GJ. Systemic mast cell activation disease: the role of molecular genetic alterations in pathogenesis, heritability and diagnostics. Immunology 2012, 137, 197–205.
  • Hamilton, Matthew J, et al.  Mast cell activation syndrome : A newly recognized disorder with systemic clinical manifestations.  2011, Vol 128, Issue 1, pp. 147-152.
  • Hauswirth, Alexander, et al. Response to therapy with interferon alpha-2b and prednisolone in aggressive systemic mastocytosis: report of five cases and review of the literature. 2004; Leuk Res 28 (3): 249-257.
  • Kettelhut BV., Metcalfe DD. Mastocytosis. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96:115S–118S.
  • Lange M., Nedoszytko B., Górska A., Żawrocki A., Sobjanek M., Kozłowski D. Mastocytosis in children and adults: clinical disease heterogeneity. Arch Med Sci 2012; 8:533–541.
  • Lim KH, Tefferi A, Lasho TL, et al.Systemic mastocytosis in 342 consecutive adults: survival studies and prognostic factors. Blood 2009; 113(23): 5727-5736.
  • Matito, Almudena, et al. Serum tryptase monitoring in indolent systemic mastocytosis: association with disease features and patient outcome. 2013; PLOS One.
  • Mital A, Piskorz A, Lewandowski K, Wasag B, Limon J, Hellmann AA case of mast cell leukaemia with exon 9 KIT mutation and good response to imatinib.Eur J Haematol 2011; 86(6):531-535.
  • Molderings GJ, Brettner S, Homann J, and Afrin LB. Mast cell activation disease: a concise practical guide for diagnostic workup and therapeutic options. J Hematol Oncol. 2011; 4: 10.
  • Molderings GJ, Haenisch B, Bogdanow M, Fimmers R, Nöthen MM. Familial occurrence of systemic mast cell activation disease. PLoS One, 8 (2013), p. e76241
  • Molderings GJ. The genetic basis of mast cell activation disease – looking through a glass darkly. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology 2014.
  • Noack F, Sotlar K, Notter M, Thiel E, Valent P, Horny HPAleukemic mast cell leukemia with abnormal immunophenotype and c-kit mutation D816V.Leuk Lymphoma 2004; 45(11): 2295-2302.
  • Pardanani A. How I treat patients with indolent and smoldering mastocytosis (rare conditions but difficult to manage.) Blood 2013: 121 (16).
  • Pardanini A. Prognostically relevant breakdown of 123 patients with systemic mastocytosis associated with other myeloid malignancies. Blood 2009, 114 (18).
  • Pardanini, Animesh. Systemic mastocytosis in adults: 2013 update on diagnosis, risk stratification, and management. 2013; American Journal of Hematology: 88 (7).
  • Picard M, Giavina-Bianchi P, Mezzano V, Castells M. Expanding Spectrum of Mast Cell Activation Disorders: Monoclonal and Idiopathic Mast Cell Activation Syndromes. Clinical Therapeutics 2013: 35 (5), 548–562.
  • Sperr, Wolfgang. Diagnosis, progression patterns and prognostication in mastocytosis. Expert Review of Hematology 2012: 5 (3): 261-274.
  • Uzzaman, Ashraf, et al. Pediatric-onset Mastocytosis: A long term clinical follow-up and correlation with bone marrow histopathology. Pediatr Blood Cancer. Oct 2009; 53 (4): 629-634.
  • Valent, Peter, et al. Aggressive systemic mastocytosis and related mast cell disorders: current treatment options and proposed response criteria. 2003; Leuk Res 27 (7): 635-41.
  •  Valent et al. Chronic mast cell leukemia: A novel leukemia-variant with distinct morphological and clinical features. Leukemia Research 39 (2015) 1-5.
  • Valent, Peter, et al. How I treat patients with advanced systemic mastocytosis. 2010; Blood: 116 (26).
  • Wimazal F., Geissler P., Shnawa P., Sperr W.R., Valent P. Severe Life-Threatening or Disabling Anaphylaxis in Patients with Systemic Mastocytosis: A Single-Center Experience. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2012; 157: 399–405.

Testing and diagnosis of mast cell disease

  • Freeman JG, Ryan JJ, Shelburne CP, Bailey DP, Bouton LA, Narasimhachari N, Domen J, Siméon N, Couderc F, Stewart JK. Catecholamines in murine bone marrowderived mast cells. J. Neuroimmunol. 2001 Oct;119(2):231-238.
  • Gordon JR, Galli SJ. Mast cells as a source of both preformed and immunologically inducible TNF-α/cachectin. Nature 1990 Jul 19; 346:274-276.
  • Laroche D, Vergnaud MC, Sillard B, Soufarapis H, Bricard H. Biochemical markers of anaphylactoid reactions to drugs: comparison of plasma histamine and tryptase. Anesthesiol. 1991 Dec; 75(6):945-949.
  • Maclouf J, Corvazier E, Wang ZY. Development of a radioimmunoassay for prostaglandin D2 using an antiserum against 11-methoxime prostaglandin D2. Prostaglandins 1986 Jan; 31(1):123-132.
  • Pregun I, Herszényi L, Juhász M, Miheller P, Hritz I, Patócs A, Rácz K, Tulassay Z. Effect of proton-pump inhibitor therapy on serum chromogranin A level. Digestion 2011; 84:22-28.
  • Seidel H, Molderings GJ, Oldenburg J, Meis K, Kolck UW, Homann J, Hertfelder HJ. Bleeding diathesis in patients with mast cell activation disease. Thromb. Haemost. 2011 Nov; 106(5):987-989.
  • Sur R, Cavender D, Malaviya R. Different approaches to study mast cell functions.  Int. Immunopharmacol. 2007 May;7(5):555-567.
  • Takeda J, Ueda E, Takahashi J, Fukushima K. Plasma N-methylhistamine concentration as an indicator of histamine release by intravenous d-tubocurarine in humans: preliminary study in five patients by radioimmunoassay kits. Anesth. Analg. 1995; 80:1015-1017.

Neurologic aspects of mast cell activation

  • Ikuko Mohri, Masako Taniike, Hidetoshi Taniguchi, Takahisa Kanekiyo, Kosuke Aritake, Takashi Inui, Noriko Fukumoto, Naomi Eguchi, Atsuko Kushi, Hitoshi. Prostaglandin D2-Mediated Microglia/Astrocyte Interaction Enhances Astrogliosis and Demyelination in The Journal of Neuroscience 2006; 26(16):4383– 4393.
  • Rogers MP, et al. Mixed organic brain syndrome as a manifestation of systemic mastocytosis. Psychosom Med. 1986 Jul-Aug; 48(6):437-47.
  • Smith, Jonathan H, Butterfield, Joseph H, Pardanini, Animesh, DeLuca, Gabriele, Cutrer, F Michael. Neurologic symptoms and diagnosis in adults with mast cell disease.  Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 113 (2011) 570-574.

Gastrointestinal aspects of mast cell disease

  • Bedeir A, et al.  Systemic mastocytosis mimicking inflammatory bowel disease: A case report and discussion of gastrointestinal pathology in systemic mastocytosis.  Am J Surg Pathol. 2006 Nov;30(11): 1478-82.
  • Hahn, Hejin P., Hornick, Jason L.  Immunoreactivity for CD25 in Gastrointestinal Mucosal Mast Cells is Specific for Systemic Mastocytosis.  American Journal of Surgical Pathology. Volume 31 (11). 2007.
  • Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal abnormalities and involvement in systemic mastocytosis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2000;14:579–623.
  • Kirsten Alfter, Ivar von Ku gelgen, Britta Haenisch, Thomas Frieling, Alexandra Hu lsdonk, Ulrike Haars, Arndt Rolfs, Gerhard Noe, Ulrich W. Kolck, Jurgen Homann and Gerhard J. Molderings. New aspects of liver abnormalities as part of the systemic mast cell activation syndrome. 2009 Liver International 29(2): 181-186.
  • Lee, Jason K, et al.  Gastrointestinal manifestations of systemic mastocytosis.  World J Gastroenterol. 14(45): 7005-7008.

Mastocytic enterocolitis

  • Akhavein, A, et al.  Allergic mastocytic gastroenteritis and colitis: An unexplained etiology in chronic abdominal pain and gastrointestinal dysmotility.  2012, Gastroenterology Research and Practice.
  • Hahn, Hejin P., Hornick, Jason L.  Immunoreactivity for CD25 in Gastrointestinal Mucosal Mast Cells is Specific for Systemic Mastocytosis.  American Journal of Surgical Pathology. Volume 31 (11). 2007.
  • Hamilton, Matthew J, et al.  Mast cell activation syndrome : A newly recognized disorder with systemic clinical manifestations.  2011, Vol 128, Issue 1, pp. 147-152.
  • Shriram Jakate, Mark Demeo, Rohan John, Mary Tobin, and Ali Keshavarzian (2006) Mastocytic Enterocolitis: Increased Mucosal Mast Cells in Chronic Intractable Diarrhea. Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine: March 2006, Vol. 130, No. 3, pp. 362-367.

Raw

Summer packed up quickly. Humidity and too hot days were gone in an instant.  The days are short now, the last waves of golden autumn sun just barely shadows when I get home from work.  It was below freezing as I walked to work yesterday morning. Two nights ago, when I stepped outside, it smelled like snow.

I blinked and suddenly the ground was covered in dry leaves, the chorus of fall sung in deep musical gusts.  It really seems like just a moment ago I was eager for summer to end and now it has been gone for weeks.

This year’s autumn has been fraught with emotions.  I am having some big feelings these days and they are leeching from my other reservoirs: patience, kindness, love.   But mostly patience.  Loss of patience is where it shows the most.

We were so scared that Seth would die, and he didn’t but we still don’t really know how to feed him.  I read papers by the hundreds, make notes, send emails.  He is better but not good.  We still don’t have a good plan.  What happened with Seth felt immediate, traumatic. Like the pain of landing hard after falling, hands and knees stinging, blood seeping through the wounds.  Startling, alarming but survivable.

Then I picked up my phone and read a text telling me that my friend was having a bad reaction in an emergency room.  I relive that night constantly.  The back and forth, my let’s not panic attitude when we should have been panicking.  I am too used to this, I have seen us all be fine after so many panic-worthy episodes.  I am too used to us all being fine.  But we should have been panicking.  And by the time we understood what was happening, she had already had a stroke in her brainstem.

It feels so slow in my memory, like a parchment map being slowly unrolled.  By the time we knew where we were, it was too late.  There is this heavy sorrow inside of my heart that makes it hard to breathe.  We didn’t even know where we were and now she is locked inside of her body. It is suddenly the end of October and the sorrow doesn’t feel lighter. I am just learning to carry the weight.

Everything is a fight sometimes.  Every. Thing.  Insurance companies, doctors’ offices, hospitals and pharmacies all call to inform me about the ways in which bureaucracy and the broken American health care system is messing up my care again.  Not in a way that will kill me, just in a way that requires a patience I no longer have.  My eye has started twitching again when I have to explain something about my healthcare again to someone who has already heard it and was previously unmoved.

Someone called me today to say that they could waive part of my bill. I had a panic attack in a grocery store, because even receiving good news about my healthcare is too stressful right now.

I was medically cleared to fly to China by all relevant medical professionals but had to undergo a medical clearance by the airline since I needed to use an infusion pump during flight.  I filled out forms, provided notarized letters.  In their infinite wisdom, the airline decided it wasn’t safe for me to fly alone.

I paid a visit to my PCP’s office after having a mid-level nervous breakdown on the phone with a nurse about the fact that the airline may not let me go to China. I apologized for getting so upset.  While she wrote another letter for me, I told her that mast cell patients get labelled as psych patients a lot because we look fine until we are in liver failure or having a stroke. I told her about my friend.

She called the pharmacist working downstairs and he came up to notarize her letter.  After some back and forth, the airline relented and agreed I can fly with my pump.

My skin is burning this week. I am flushed a deep pink all over.  I realized today that I am reacting to my ketotifen after eighteen months of taking it every day without an issue.  More phone calls with my fingers pressing on my eyelid in a vain attempt to stop the twitching, heat creeping up the back of my neck.

Last week, some guy kept obstructing my path down the sidewalk in an attempt to make me donate to some charity.  When I finally maneuvered around him successfully, he made a snide comment.  I turned around and yelled at him.  Because get the fuck out of my way.

I am grieving and angry and impatient and raw and exposed.  In two weeks I will be in Hong Kong and it feels wrong that I am stable enough to travel to Asia, a sort of betrayal and survival’s guilt.

 

 

 

 

Great wall

I have always wanted to travel. From a young age, I was fascinated by language and traveling seemed an extension of that, places to hear foreign words and see strange alphabets. When I was 19, while sitting at my desk one night, it occurred to me that there was no reason I couldn’t just save up and go wherever I wanted to. I planned my first trip abroad and spent 26 days in Europe the following summer.

Traveling made me happy in a way that I have never been able to replicate in any other way. Over the next several years, I spent all my money on travel. I didn’t care if I ate the same thing every day or drove a junkbox. Nothing mattered to me like the joy of being in strange, faraway places. I started planning my magnum opus: a nine month trip around the world that took me through six continents. It was slated for January 2011.

In 2009, I lost a lot of my hearing. I spent all of the money I had saved for the trip on medical expenses, much in an effort to stop my rapid march towards deafness. I lost my hearing anyway. I haven’t travelled out of the US since 2010.

For a while, I went through the motions, even when I was clearly in no shape, financially or physically, to go anywhere. I bought guidebooks, priced flights and drew maps of places I hoped to visit. I printed out pictures of every country in the world and glued them to cardstock. I hung them in my apartment, passive encouragement that I would once again be strong enough to see some of them.

Then my health declined rapidly and I was in massive pain and puking constantly and unable to go to the bathroom. I stopped everything. I couldn’t fly anywhere anyway, so there was really no point. I couldn’t even think about it. I was so tired and the pain was so bad and I was scared. My illness was this huge wall around my life and I couldn’t even try to climb out. I could only hope not to be buried by it.

Last year, I decided that it was time to try again. I flew to Seattle with my best friend, emboldened by my ready IV access and growing restlessness. I took a few other domestic trips, Colorado, Florida, California. My health was mostly fine and when it wasn’t, I knew how to manage it with medication to stay safe. Every new trip gave me confidence that I could be independent in travel, provided I had a predetermined, safe place to stay and eat, and someone to help me if I got sick. The majority of my luggage was medication and medical supplies and I didn’t care.

In less than a month, I will be flying to Asia and fulfilling a lifelong dream of seeing the Great Wall of China. It has been logistically complicated, with medical notes and forms and notaries and translations and all the doctors. I will be taking a sixteen hour direct flight from Boston to Hong Kong, where I will spend some time with a dear friend before we travel to Beijing and then the Great Wall.

I feel it again. And even though I’m scared, I am happy.

Happiness is a kind of fighting. It is a way of saying that maybe today was miserable and so were a lot of yesterdays but maybe tomorrow will be different. It is the refusal to be subjugated by pain and fear and uncertainty. It is the memory of joy and the knowledge that even if you don’t believe it, you could again. It is the way memories catch light in your mind, a technicolor feeling that goes on forever. It is the only fight that matters.

Some things are best viewed not as they are, but in the light of a prior incarnation and the hope that it could reascend to this splendor once again. It took years, but I climbed out of the high walled prison of this disease and next month, on the other side of the world, I will put my hands on another Great Wall.

The violence done unto us

It was a Saturday when I found out about Seth. One of my masto friends called to give me a breathless update at almost 11pm.

“He’s in liver failure,” she said with a rising lilt in her voice, the kind that barely masks panic.

I laid down on my living room floor while we talked. Seth is my friend who has MCAS and he is three years old.

Less than 48 hours before, he had begun presenting with severe neurologic deficits. By Sunday morning, he could no longer speak, see or clot properly. He was air lifted to a different hospital with tanking vital signs.

The next several days were a blur, more one long impossible experience than individual actions. Things were grim. For a time, it looked very much like he would not survive.

Seth’s parents are good friends of mine. Our friends and I communicated every piece of information to each other and anyone we thought could help. I woke up to messages every morning asking if there was any news. I was 3000 miles away and out of helpful ideas and utterly powerless.

By some miracle, Seth did not die. He is still in the PICU and will need involved care for some time. There is still not a great treatment plan for the future. But he is alive. And he is still Seth.

On Friday, I found out that my friend, the friend who called me about Seth, was having her own medical event. Things were fairly progressed by the time I was in the loop. It was literally sickening. A couple of days passed until I got a phone call telling me she had a catastrophic injury. I ran to the bathroom and threw up.

There are moments when you lose pieces of yourself. Sometimes it is organic, a skin shed as you move forward. Sometimes it is violent, a piece carved out with deep gouges, more than you could afford to lose. A piece you never get back. A piece that leaves a hollow so deep that no matter what you use to shore up the edges, it never feels strong again.

I want to go back to the time before this violence but I can’t remember what it feels like. It’s already gone.

These are my people and they are every bit as connected to me as the family I was born into.

How could this happen?

Childhood mastocytosis: Update

One of the more confusing aspects of mastocytosis is that childhood mastocytosis often bears little resemblance to adult-onset mastocytosis and has a very different natural history.  Cutaneous mastocytosis in children is the most common presentation of mastocytosis. True systemic mastocytosis (meeting WHO SM criteria) is quite rare in pediatric cases.

A recent paper describes the features of 105 children assessed at the NIH.  They found that the children in this group either had a stable disease state or improved, with 30-65% getting better over time.  None of the children received cytoreductive therapy.

They found that in this group, children with normal baseline tryptase levels had negative bone marrow biopsies.  A single elevated tryptase level was not determined to correlate well with to a positive bone marrow, rather an elevated baseline tryptase was a good indicator of SM. No children without systemic mastocytosis had organ swelling.

Likewise, all children with systemic mastocytosis had both elevated baseline tryptase and swelling of internal organs.  Bone marrow mast cell burden correlated well with tryptase value. The average tryptase for children with SM in this study was 111.5 ng/ml. Tryptase decreased over time in some SM children.  The researchers recommended evaluation of serum tryptase every 6-12 months.

All children with organ swelling were found to have SM. Children with swelling of both liver and spleen were found to be positive for the D816V CKIT mutation.  Swelling of both of these organs indicates that disease is more likely to persist into adulthood.  Of total 19 children with SM, 16 were positive for the CKIT D816V mutation.

In children with UP, the average tryptase value was 5.9 ng/ml. Twelve children with UP had tryptase values of 11-20, and six had values over 20. Children with UP most often saw significant decreases in tryptase levels over time.   Most UP children with skin and minor GI issues had normal tryptase values.

Children with DCM had much higher average tryptase values, with an average of 67. 85% of DCM children had tryptase over 20 ng/ml when diagnosed.  None of them had swelling of organs.

Of 105 children assessed in this study, 3 had elevated monocytes; 22 had elevated white blood cells; and 12 had elevated platelets.  All of these values returned to normal by the end of the study.  Seven had increased clotting time (PTT). Of those with longer clotting times, four had lupus antibodies and one had Factor VII deficiency. All seven PTT values returned to normal.  Two children with DCM and one with UP had iron deficiency anemia.  One patient had significant elevation of alkaline phosphatase, which resolved.  Researchers noted an inverse correlation between serum tryptase and IgE levels in this group.

Reference:

Carter et al. Assessment of clinical findings, tryptase levels, and bone marrow histopathology in the management of pediatric mastocytosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2015.

Chronic mast cell leukemia: A new variant of systemic mastocytosis

Mast cell leukemia (MCL) is a variant of systemic mastocytosis (SM) marked by a significantly shortened lifespan.  In MCL, patients experience massive and devastating proliferation of immature mast cells.  The bone marrow is always affected and the huge amount of mast cells means there is no room for other types of blood cells. Usually, the bone marrow smear reveals over 20% of nucleated cells in bone marrow are atypical mast cells, as well as large quantities present in the blood.  In the aleukemic variant, less than 10% of all white cells in the blood are mast cells.

In most patients with MCL, C-findings (markers of organ infiltration and damage progressing to organ failure) are present.  These include such features as hypersplenism, liver damage, very low blood cell counts, and others.  However, in the last several years, a number of MCL patients described who do not have C findings.  These patients have over 20% mast cells in the nucleated cells of the bone marrow, but the mast cells are mostly mature, and most do not circulate in the blood stream.  This population often demonstrates stability rather than rapid progression toward death, as was previously seen in most MCL patients.  The term “chronic MCL” has been suggested to describe this group.

The more classic MCL presentation (now called acute MCL) has a number of differences from chronic MCL.  In acute MCL, most of the mast cells are not mature, with metachromatic blast cells.  In acute MCL, CD25 receptor is always present on the cells, while this only sometimes occurs in the chronic course.  Chronic MCL never expresses Ki-67 on the outside of the cells, while this is sometimes seen in acute MCL.  Both acute and chronic sometimes have CD2 and D816V mutation, but not always.  Spindle shaped mast cells are almost never present in acute MCL.  Swelling of the spleen is always seen in acute MCL, but only sometimes in the chronic form.  Chronic MCL patients have no C findings.  If they develop a C finding, they are reclassified as acute MCL.

Acute MCL has long been associated with very short survival times following diagnosis, most often less than a year.  This can be extended in some patients with the use of newer medications.  Remarkably, patients with chronic MCL demonstrate a largely stable clinical course comparable to smouldering SM.  In both of these conditions, tryptase levels are high but stable; the spleen is most often swollen; and mast cell burden is high.  Patients with chronic MCL usually have no mast cell skin lesions.

Chronic MCL patients can be stable for years, but can progress to acute MCL or MCL-AHNMD at any time.  Mediator release symptoms more often seen in indolent mast cell diseases are also common in chronic MCL, while less so in acute MCL.

Reference:

P. Valent et al. Chronic mast cell leukemia: A novel leukemia-variant with distinct morphological and clinical features. 23eukemia Research 39 (2015) 1-5.